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Dau lectii de chineza, coreeana, maghiara sau germana prin intermediul, facebook sau wechat.Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.comBlogger440125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-56735485469616545832024-02-23T19:29:00.000+01:002024-02-23T19:29:08.817+01:00Fallacies<p> </p><h1 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Logic & Fallacies<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />Constructing a Logical Argument (1997)</h1><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Introduction</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">There is a lot of debate on the net. Unfortunately, much of it is of very low quality. The aim of this document is to explain the basics of logical reasoning, and hopefully improve the overall quality of debate.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The Concise Oxford English Dictionary defines logic as “the science of reasoning, proof, thinking, or inference.” Logic will let you analyze an argument or a piece of reasoning, and work out whether it is likely to be correct or not. You don’t need to know logic to argue, of course; but if you know even a little, you’ll find it easier to spot invalid arguments.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">There are many kinds of logic, such as fuzzy logic and constructive logic; they have different rules, and different strengths and weaknesses. This document discusses simple Boolean logic, because it’s commonplace and relatively easy to understand. When people talk about something being “logical,” they usually mean the type of logic described here.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="isnot" name="isnot" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a></p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">What logic isn’t</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">It’s worth mentioning a couple of things which logic is not.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">First, <strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">logical reasoning is not an absolute law which governs the universe</strong>. Many times in the past, people have concluded that because something is logically impossible (given the science of the day), it must be impossible, period. It was also believed at one time that Euclidean geometry was a universal law; it is, after all, logically consistent. Again, we now know that the rules of Euclidean geometry are not universal.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Second, <strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">logic is not a set of rules which govern human behavior</strong>. Humans may have logically conflicting goals. For example:</p><ul style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">John wishes to speak to whoever is in charge.</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">The person in charge is Steve.</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Therefore John wishes to speak to Steve.</li></ul><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Unfortunately, John may have a conflicting goal of avoiding Steve, meaning that the reasoned answer may be inapplicable to real life.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This document only explains how to use logic; you must decide whether logic is the right tool for the job. There are other ways to communicate, discuss and debate.</p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Arguments</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">An argument is, to quote the Monty Python sketch, “a connected series of statements to establish a definite proposition.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Many types of argument exist; we will discuss the <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">deductive argument</dfn>. Deductive arguments are generally viewed as the most precise and the most persuasive; they provide conclusive proof of their conclusion, and are either <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">valid</dfn> or <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">invalid</dfn>.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Deductive arguments have three stages:</p><ol style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">premises</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">inference</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">conclusion</li></ol><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">However, before we can consider those stages in detail, we must discuss the building blocks of a deductive argument: propositions.</p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Propositions</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">A <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">proposition</dfn> is a statement which is either true or false. The proposition is the meaning of the statement, not the precise arrangement of words used to convey that meaning.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">For example, “There exists an even prime number greater than two” is a proposition. (A false one, in this case.) “An even prime number greater than two exists” is the same proposition, reworded.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Unfortunately, it’s very easy to unintentionally change the meaning of a statement by rephrasing it. It’s generally safer to consider the wording of a proposition as significant.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">It’s possible to use formal linguistics to analyze and rephrase a statement without changing its meaning; but how to do so is outside the scope of this document.</p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Premises</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">A deductive argument always requires a number of core assumptions. These are called <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">premises</dfn>, and are the assumptions the argument is built on; or to look at it another way, the reasons for accepting the argument. Premises are only premises in the context of a particular argument; they might be conclusions in other arguments, for example.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">You should always state the premises of the argument explicitly; this is the principle of <i style="box-sizing: border-box;">audiatur et altera pars.</i> Failing to state your assumptions is often viewed as suspicious, and will likely reduce the acceptance of your argument.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The premises of an argument are often introduced with words such as “Assume,” “Since,” “Obviously,” and “Because.” It’s a good idea to get your opponent to agree with the premises of your argument before proceeding any further.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The word “obviously” is also often viewed with suspicion. It occasionally gets used to persuade people to accept false statements, rather than admit that they don’t understand why something is “obvious.” So don’t be afraid to question statements which people tell you are “obvious”–when you’ve heard the explanation you can always say something like “You’re right, now that I think about it that way, it <em style="box-sizing: border-box;">is</em> obvious.”</p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Inference</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Once the premises have been agreed, the argument proceeds via a step-by-step process called <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">inference</dfn>.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">In inference, you start with one or more propositions which have been accepted; you then use those propositions to arrive at a new proposition. If the inference is valid, that proposition should also be accepted. You can use the new proposition for inference later on.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">So initially, you can only infer things from the premises of the argument. But as the argument proceeds, the number of statements available for inference increases.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">There are various kinds of valid inference–and also some invalid kinds, which we’ll look at later on. Inference steps are often identified by phrases like “therefore …” or “… implies that …”</p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Conclusion</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Hopefully you will arrive at a proposition which is the conclusion of the argument – the result you are trying to prove. The conclusion is the result of the final step of inference. It’s only a conclusion in the context of a particular argument; it could be a premise or assumption in another argument.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The conclusion is said to be <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">affirmed</dfn> on the basis of the premises, and the inference from them. This is a subtle point which deserves further explanation.</p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Implication in detail</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Clearly you can build a valid argument from true premises, and arrive at a true conclusion. You can also build a valid argument from false premises, and arrive at a false conclusion.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The tricky part is that you can start with false premises, proceed via valid inference, and reach a <em style="box-sizing: border-box;">true</em> conclusion. For example:</p><ul style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Premise: All fish live in the ocean</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Premise: Sea otters are fish</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Conclusion: Therefore sea otters live in the ocean</li></ul><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><u>There’s one thing you can’t do, though: start from true premises, proceed via valid deductive inference, and reach a false conclusion.</u></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">We can summarize these results as a “<a id="truthtable" name="truthtable" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>truth table” for implication. The symbol “=>” denotes implication; “A” is the premise, “B” the conclusion. “T” and “F” represent true and false respectively.</p><figure class="wp-block-table" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px 0px 1em; overflow-x: auto;"><table style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 958.026px;"><tbody style="box-sizing: border-box;"><tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><th style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">Premise</th><th style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">Conclusion</th><th style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">Inference</th></tr><tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><th style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">A</th><th style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">B</th><th style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">A => B</th></tr><tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">false</td><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">false</td><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">true</td></tr><tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">false</td><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">true</td><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">true</td></tr><tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">true</td><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">false</td><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">false</td></tr><tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">true</td><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">true</td><td style="border: 1px solid; box-sizing: border-box; padding: 0.5em;">true</td></tr></tbody></table></figure><ul style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">If the premises are false and the inference valid, the conclusion can be true or false. (Lines 1 and 2.)</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">If the premises are true and the conclusion false, the inference must be invalid. (Line 3.)</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">If the premises are true and the inference valid, the conclusion must be true. (Line 4.)</li></ul><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">So <em style="box-sizing: border-box;">the fact that an argument is valid doesn’t necessarily mean that its conclusion holds</em>–it may have started from false premises.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">If an argument is valid, and in addition it started from true premises, then it is called a <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">sound</dfn> argument. A sound argument must arrive at a true conclusion.</p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Example argument</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Here’s an example of an argument which is valid, and which may or may not be sound:</p><ol style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Premise: Every event has a cause</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Premise: The universe has a beginning</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Premise: All beginnings involve an event</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Inference: This implies that the beginning of the universe involved an event</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Inference: Therefore the beginning of the universe had a cause</li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">Conclusion: The universe had a cause</li></ol><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The proposition in line 4 is inferred from lines 2 and 3. Line 1 is then used, with the proposition derived in line 4, to infer a new proposition in line 5. The result of the inference in line 5 is then restated (in slightly simplified form) as the conclusion.</p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Spotting arguments</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Spotting an argument is harder than spotting premises or a conclusion. Lots of people shower their writing with assertions, without ever producing anything you might reasonably call an argument.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Sometimes arguments don’t follow the pattern described above. For example, people may state their conclusions first, and then justify them afterwards. This is valid, but it can be a little confusing.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">To make the situation worse, some statements look like arguments but aren’t. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“If the Bible is accurate, Jesus must either have been insane, a liar, or the Son of God.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">That’s not an argument; it’s a conditional statement. It doesn’t state the premises necessary to support its conclusion, and even if you add those assertions it suffers from a number of other flaws which are described in more detail in the Atheist Arguments document.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">An argument is also not the same as an explanation. Suppose that you are trying to argue that Albert Einstein believed in God, and say:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Einstein made his famous statement ‘God does not play dice’ because of his belief in God.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">That may look like a relevant argument, but it’s not; it’s an explanation of Einstein’s statement. To see this, remember that a statement of the form “X because Y” can be rephrased as an equivalent statement, of the form “Y therefore X.” Doing so gives us:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Einstein believed in God, therefore he made his famous statement ‘God does not play dice.'”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Now it’s clear that the statement, which looked like an argument, is actually assuming the result which it is supposed to be proving, in order to explain the Einstein quote.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Furthermore, Einstein did not believe in a personal God concerned with human affairs–again, see the Atheist Arguments document.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">We’ve outlined the structure of a sound deductive argument, from premises to conclusion. But ultimately, the conclusion of a valid logical argument is only as compelling as the premises you started from. Logic in itself doesn’t solve the problem of verifying the basic assertions which support arguments; for that, we need some other tool. The dominant means of verifying basic assertions is scientific enquiry. However, the philosophy of science and the scientific method are huge topics which are quite beyond the scope of this document.</p><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="fallacies" name="fallacies" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Fallacies</h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">There are a number of common pitfalls to avoid when constructing a deductive argument; they’re known as <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">fallacies</dfn>. In everyday English, we refer to many kinds of mistaken beliefs as fallacies; but in logic, the term has a more specific meaning: a fallacy is a technical flaw which makes an argument unsound or invalid.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">(Note that you can criticize more than just the soundness of an argument. Arguments are almost always presented with some specific purpose in mind–and the intent of the argument may also be worthy of criticism.)</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Arguments which contain fallacies are described as <dfn style="box-sizing: border-box;">fallacious</dfn>. They often appear valid and convincing; sometimes only close inspection reveals the logical flaw.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Below is a list of some common fallacies, and also some rhetorical devices often used in debate. The list isn’t intended to be exhaustive; the hope is that if you learn to recognize some of the more common fallacies, you’ll be able to avoid being fooled by them.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The Nizkor Project has an excellent list of logical fallacies.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Sadly, many of the examples below have been taken directly from the Net, though some have been rephrased for the sake of clarity.</p><hr class="wp-block-separator" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: 2px; width: 958.026px;" /><h3 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">List of fallacies</h3><ul style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#accent" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Accent</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#adhoc" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Ad hoc</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#consequent" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Affirmation of the consequent</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#amphiboly" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Amphiboly</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#anecdotal" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Anecdotal evidence</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#antiquitatem" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad antiquitatem</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#baculum" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad baculum / Appeal to force</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#crumenam" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad crumenam</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#hominem" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad hominem</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#ignorantiam" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad ignorantiam</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#lazarum" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad lazarum</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#logicam" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad logicam</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#misericordiam" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad misericordiam</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#nauseam" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad nauseam</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#novitatem" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad novitatem</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#numerum" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad numerum</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#populum" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad populum</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#authority" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad verecundiam</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#alterapars" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Audiatur et altera pars</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#bifurcation" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Bifurcation</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#circulus" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Circulus in demonstrando</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#complexq" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Complex question / Fallacy of interrogation / Fallacy of presupposition</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#composition" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Composition</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#generalization" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Converse accident / Hasty generalization</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#conditional" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Converting a conditional</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#cumhoc" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Cum hoc ergo propter hoc</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#antecedent" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Denial of the antecedent</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#accident" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Dicto simpliciter / The fallacy of accident / Sweeping generalization</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#division" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Division</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#equivocation" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Equivocation / Fallacy of four terms</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#analogy" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Extended analogy</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#elenchi" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Ignoratio elenchi / Irrelevant conclusion</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#natural" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Natural Law fallacy / Appeal to Nature</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#scots" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">“No True Scotsman …” fallacy</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#noncausa" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Non causa pro causa</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#nonseq" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Non sequitur</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#begging" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Petitio principii / Begging the question</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#manyq" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Plurium interrogationum / Many questions</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#posthoc" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Post hoc, ergo propter hoc</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#herring" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Red herring</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#reification" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Reification / Hypostatization</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#shifting" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Shifting the burden of proof</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#slope" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Slippery slope argument</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#strawman" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Straw man</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#tuquoque" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Tu quoque</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#isatype" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Undistributed Middle / “A is based on B” fallacies / “… is a type of …” fallacies</a></li><li style="box-sizing: border-box;">For more fallacies, more examples, and scholarly references, see “<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171230224409/http://www.onegoodmove.org:80/fallacy/toc.htm" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Stephen’s Guide to the Logical Fallacies</a>.” (Off Site)</li></ul><hr class="wp-block-separator" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: 2px; width: 958.026px;" /><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="accent" name="accent" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Accent</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Accent is a form of fallacy through shifting meaning. In this case, the meaning is changed by altering which parts of a statement are emphasized. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“We should not speak <strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">ill</strong> of our friends”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">and</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“We should not speak ill of our <strong style="box-sizing: border-box;">friends</strong>“</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Be particularly wary of this fallacy on the net, where it’s easy to misread the emphasis of what’s written.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="adhoc" name="adhoc" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Ad hoc (for this purpose only)</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">As mentioned earlier, there is a difference between argument and explanation. If we’re interested in establishing A, and B is offered as evidence, the statement “A because B” is an argument. If we’re trying to establish the truth of B, then “A because B” is not an argument, it’s an explanation.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The Ad Hoc fallacy is to give an after-the-fact explanation which doesn’t apply to other situations. Often this ad hoc explanation will be dressed up to look like an argument. For example, if we assume that God treats all people equally, then the following is an ad hoc explanation:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“I was healed from cancer.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Praise the Lord, then. He is your healer.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“So, will He heal others who have cancer?”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Er… The ways of God are mysterious.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="consequent" name="consequent" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Affirmation of the consequent</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is an argument of the form “A implies B, B is true, therefore A is true.” To understand why it is a fallacy, examine the <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#truthtable" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">truth table for implication</a> given earlier. Here’s an example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“If the universe had been created by a supernatural being, we would see order and organization everywhere. And we do see order, not randomness–so it’s clear that the universe had a creator.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is the converse of <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#antecedent" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Denial of the Antecedent</a>.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="amphiboly" name="amphiboly" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Amphiboly</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Amphiboly occurs when the premises used in an argument are ambiguous because of careless or ungrammatical phrasing. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Premise: Belief in God fills a much-needed gap.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="anecdotal" name="anecdotal" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Anecdotal evidence</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">One of the simplest fallacies is to rely on anecdotal evidence. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“There’s abundant proof that God exists and is still performing miracles today. Just last week I read about a girl who was dying of cancer. Her whole family went to church and prayed for her, and she was cured.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">It’s quite valid to use personal experience to illustrate a point; but such anecdotes don’t actually prove anything to anyone. Your friend may say he met Elvis in the supermarket, but those who haven’t had the same experience will require more than your friend’s anecdotal evidence to convince them.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Anecdotal evidence can seem very compelling, especially if the audience <em style="box-sizing: border-box;">wants</em> to believe it. This is part of the explanation for urban legends; stories which are verifiably false have been known to circulate as anecdotes for years.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="antiquitatem" name="antiquitatem" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad antiquitatem</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is the fallacy of asserting that something is right or good simply because it’s old, or because “that’s the way it’s always been.” The opposite of <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#novitatem" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad Novitatem</a>.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“For thousands of years Christians have believed in Jesus Christ. Christianity must be true, to have persisted so long even in the face of persecution.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="baculum" name="baculum" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad baculum (Appeal to force or fear)</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">An Appeal to Force happens when someone resorts to force (or the threat of force) to try and push others to accept a conclusion. This fallacy is often used by politicians, and can be summarized as “might makes right.” The threat doesn’t have to come directly from the person arguing. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Thus there is ample proof of the truth of the Bible. All those who refuse to accept that truth will burn in Hell.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“In any case, I know your phone number and I know where you live. Have I mentioned I am licensed to carry concealed weapons?”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="crumenam" name="crumenam" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad crumenam</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The fallacy of believing that money is a criterion of correctness; that those with more money are more likely to be right. The opposite of <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#lazarum" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad Lazarum</a>. Example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Microsoft software is undoubtedly superior; why else would Bill Gates have gotten so rich?”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="hominem" name="hominem" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad hominem (Abusive: attacking the person)</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Argumentum ad hominem literally means “argument directed at the man”; there are two varieties.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The first is the abusive form. If you refuse to accept a statement, and justify your refusal by criticizing the person who made the statement, then you are guilty of abusive argumentum ad hominem. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“You claim that atheists can be moral–yet I happen to know that you abandoned your wife and children.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is a fallacy because the truth of an assertion doesn’t depend on the virtues of the person asserting it. A less blatant argumentum ad hominem is to reject a proposition based on the fact that it was also asserted by some other easily criticized person. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Therefore we should close down the church? Hitler and Stalin would have agreed with you.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">A second form of argumentum ad hominem is to try and persuade someone to accept a statement you make, by referring to that person’s particular circumstances. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Therefore it is perfectly acceptable to kill animals for food. I hope you won’t argue otherwise, given that you’re quite happy to wear leather shoes.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is known as circumstantial argumentum ad hominem. The fallacy can also be used as an excuse to reject a particular conclusion. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Of course you’d argue that positive discrimination is a bad thing. You’re white.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This particular form of Argumentum ad Hominem, when you allege that someone is rationalizing a conclusion for selfish reasons, is also known as “poisoning the well.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">It’s not always invalid to refer to the circumstances of an individual who is making a claim. If someone is a known perjurer or liar, that fact will reduce their credibility as a witness. It won’t, however, prove that their testimony is false in this case. It also won’t alter the soundness of any logical arguments they may make.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="ignorantiam" name="ignorantiam" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad ignorantiam (Argument from ignorance)</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Argumentum ad ignorantiam means “argument from ignorance.” The fallacy occurs when it’s argued that something must be true, simply because it hasn’t been proved false. Or, equivalently, when it is argued that something must be false because it hasn’t been proved true.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">(Note that this isn’t the same as <em style="box-sizing: border-box;">assuming</em> something is false until it has been proved true. In law, for example, you’re generally assumed innocent until proven guilty.)</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Here are a couple of examples:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Of course the Bible is true. Nobody can prove otherwise.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Of course telepathy and other psychic phenomena do not exist. Nobody has shown any proof that they are real.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">In scientific investigation, if it is known that an event would produce certain evidence of its having occurred, the absence of such evidence can validly be used to infer that the event didn’t occur. It does not prove it with certainty, however.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“A flood as described in the Bible would require an enormous volume of water to be present on the earth. The earth doesn’t have a tenth as much water, even if we count that which is frozen into ice at the poles. Therefore no such flood occurred.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">It is, of course, possible that some unknown process occurred to remove the water. Good science would then demand a plausible testable theory to explain how it vanished.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Of course, the history of science is full of logically valid bad predictions. In 1893, the Royal Academy of Science were convinced by Sir Robert Ball that communication with the planet Mars was a physical impossibility, because it would require a flag as large as Ireland, which it would be impossible to wave. <cite style="box-sizing: border-box;">[<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090318085619/http://forteantimes.co.uk:80/" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Fortean Times</a> Number 82.]</cite></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">See also <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#shifting" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Shifting the Burden of Proof</a>.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="lazarum" name="lazarum" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad lazarum</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The fallacy of assuming that someone poor is sounder or more virtuous than someone who’s wealthier. This fallacy is the opposite of the <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#crumenam" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad Crumenam</a>. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Monks are more likely to possess insight into the meaning of life, as they have given up the distractions of wealth.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="logicam" name="logicam" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad logicam</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is the “fallacy fallacy” of arguing that a proposition is false because it has been presented as the conclusion of a fallacious argument. Remember always that fallacious arguments can arrive at true conclusions.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Take the fraction 16/64. Now, canceling a six on top and a six on the bottom, we get that 16/64 = 1/4.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Wait a second! You can’t just cancel the six!”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Oh, so you’re telling us 16/64 is not equal to 1/4, are you?”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="misericordiam" name="misericordiam" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad misericordiam (Appeal to pity; Special pleading)</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is the Appeal to Pity, also known as Special Pleading. The fallacy is committed when someone appeals to pity for the sake of getting a conclusion accepted. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“I did not murder my mother and father with an axe! Please don’t find me guilty; I’m suffering enough through being an orphan.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="nauseam" name="nauseam" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad nauseam</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is the incorrect belief that an assertion is more likely to be true, or is more likely to be accepted as true, the more often it is heard. So an Argumentum ad Nauseam is one that employs constant repetition in asserting something; saying the same thing over and over again until you’re sick of hearing it.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">On the Net, your argument is often less likely to be heard if you repeat it over and over again, as people will tend to put you in their kill files.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="novitatem" name="novitatem" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad novitatem</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is the opposite of the <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#antiquitatem" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad Antiquitatem</a>; it’s the fallacy of asserting that something is better or more correct simply because it is new, or newer than something else.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“BeOS is a far better choice of operating system than OpenStep, as it has a much newer design.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="numerum" name="numerum" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad numerum</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is closely related to the <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#populum" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">argumentum ad populum</a>. It consists of asserting that the more people who support or believe a proposition, the more likely it is that that proposition is correct. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“The vast majority of people in this country believe that capital punishment has a noticeable deterrent effect. To suggest that it doesn’t in the face of so much evidence is ridiculous.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“All I’m saying is that thousands of people believe in pyramid power, so there must be something to it.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="populum" name="populum" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad populum (Appeal to the people or gallery)</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is known as Appealing to the Gallery, or Appealing to the People. You commit this fallacy if you attempt to win acceptance of an assertion by appealing to a large group of people. This form of fallacy is often characterized by emotive language. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Pornography must be banned. It is violence against women.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“For thousands of years people have believed in Jesus and the Bible. This belief has had a great impact on their lives. What more evidence do you need that Jesus was the Son of God? Are you trying to tell those people that they are all mistaken fools?”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="authority" name="authority" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Argumentum ad verecundiam (Appeal to authority)</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The Appeal to Authority uses admiration of a famous person to try and win support for an assertion. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Isaac Newton was a genius and he believed in God.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This line of argument isn’t always completely bogus when used in an inductive argument; for example, it may be relevant to refer to a widely-regarded authority in a particular field, if you’re discussing that subject. For example, we can distinguish quite clearly between:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Hawking has concluded that black holes give off radiation”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">and</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Penrose has concluded that it is impossible to build an intelligent computer”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Hawking is a physicist, and so we can reasonably expect his opinions on black hole radiation to be informed. Penrose is a mathematician, so it is questionable whether he is well-qualified to speak on the subject of machine intelligence.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="alterapars" name="alterapars" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Audiatur et altera pars</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Often, people will argue from assumptions which they don’t bother to state. The principle of Audiatur et Altera Pars is that all of the premises of an argument should be stated explicitly. It’s not strictly a fallacy to fail to state all of your assumptions; however, it’s often viewed with suspicion.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="bifurcation" name="bifurcation" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Bifurcation</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Also referred to as the “black and white” fallacy and “false dichotomy,” bifurcation occurs if someone presents a situation as having only two alternatives, where in fact other alternatives exist or can exist. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Either man was created, as the Bible tells us, or he evolved from inanimate chemicals by pure random chance, as scientists tell us. The latter is incredibly unlikely, so …”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="circulus" name="circulus" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Circulus in demonstrando</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy occurs if you assume as a premise the conclusion which you wish to reach. Often, the proposition is rephrased so that the fallacy appears to be a valid argument. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Homosexuals must not be allowed to hold government office. Hence any government official who is revealed to be a homosexual will lose his job. Therefore homosexuals will do anything to hide their secret, and will be open to blackmail. Therefore homosexuals cannot be allowed to hold government office.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Note that the argument is entirely circular; the premise is the same as the conclusion. An argument like the above has actually been cited as the reason for the British Secret Services’ official ban on homosexual employees.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Circular arguments are surprisingly common, unfortunately. If you’ve already reached a particular conclusion once, it’s easy to accidentally make it an assertion when explaining your reasoning to someone else.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="complexq" name="complexq" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Complex question / Fallacy of interrogation / Fallacy of presupposition</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is the interrogative form of <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#begging" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Begging the Question</a>. One example is the classic loaded question:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Have you stopped beating your wife?”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The question presupposes a definite answer to another question which has not even been asked. This trick is often used by lawyers in cross-examination, when they ask questions like:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Where did you hide the money you stole?”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Similarly, politicians often ask loaded questions such as:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“How long will this EU interference in our affairs be allowed to continue?”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">or</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Does the Chancellor plan two more years of ruinous privatization?”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Another form of this fallacy is to ask for an explanation of something which is untrue or not yet established.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="composition" name="composition" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Composition</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The Fallacy of Composition is to conclude that a property shared by a number of individual items, is also shared by a collection of those items; or that a property of the parts of an object, must also be a property of the whole thing. Examples:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“The bicycle is made entirely of low mass components, and is therefore very lightweight.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“A car uses less petrochemicals and causes less pollution than a bus. Therefore cars are less environmentally damaging than buses.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">A related form of fallacy of composition is the “just” fallacy, or <a href="http://andrewlias.blogspot.com/2004/05/fallacy-of-mediocrity.html" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">fallacy of mediocrity</a>. This is the fallacy that assumes that any given member of a set must be limited to the attributes that are held in common with all the other members of the set. Example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Humans are just animals, so we should not concern ourselves with justice; we should just obey the law of the jungle.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Here the fallacy is to reason that because we are animals, we can have only properties which animals have; that nothing can distinguish us as a special case.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="generalization" name="generalization" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Converse accident / Hasty generalization</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is the reverse of the <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#accident" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Fallacy of Accident</a>. It occurs when you form a general rule by examining only a few specific cases which aren’t representative of all possible cases. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Jim Bakker was an insincere Christian. Therefore all Christians are insincere.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="conditional" name="conditional" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Converting a conditional</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is an argument of the form “If A then B, therefore if B then A.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“If educational standards are lowered, the quality of argument seen on the Net worsens. So if we see the level of debate on the net get worse over the next few years, we’ll know that our educational standards are still falling.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is similar to the <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#consequent" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Affirmation of the Consequent</a>, but phrased as a conditional statement.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="cumhoc" name="cumhoc" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Cum hoc ergo propter hoc</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is similar to <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#posthoc" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">post hoc ergo propter hoc</a>. The fallacy is to assert that because two events occur together, they must be causally related. It’s a fallacy because it ignores other factors that may be the cause(s) of the events.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Literacy rates have steadily declined since the advent of television. Clearly television viewing impedes learning.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is a special case of the more general <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#noncausa" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">non causa pro causa</a>.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="antecedent" name="antecedent" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Denial of the antecedent</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is an argument of the form “A implies B, A is false, therefore B is false.” The <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#truthtable" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">truth table for implication</a> makes it clear why this is a fallacy.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Note that this fallacy is different from <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#posthoc" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Non Causa Pro Causa</a>. That has the form “A implies B, A is false, therefore B is false,” where A does <em style="box-sizing: border-box;">not</em> in fact imply B at all. Here, the problem isn’t that the implication is invalid; rather it’s that the falseness of A doesn’t allow us to deduce anything about B.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“If the God of the Bible appeared to me, personally, that would certainly prove that Christianity was true. But God has never appeared to me, so the Bible must be a work of fiction.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is the converse of the fallacy of <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#consequent" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Affirmation of the Consequent</a>.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="accident" name="accident" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Dicto simpliciter / Fallacy of accident / Sweeping generalization</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">A sweeping generalization occurs when a general rule is applied to a particular situation, but the features of that particular situation mean the rule is inapplicable. It’s the error made when you go from the general to the specific. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Christians generally dislike atheists. You are a Christian, so you must dislike atheists.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is often committed by people who try to decide moral and legal questions by mechanically applying general rules.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="division" name="division" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Division</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The fallacy of division is the opposite of the <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#composition" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Fallacy of Composition</a>. It consists of assuming that a property of some thing must apply to its parts; or that a property of a collection of items is shared by each item.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“You are studying at a rich college. Therefore you must be rich.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Ants can destroy a tree. Therefore this ant can destroy a tree.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="equivocation" name="equivocation" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Equivocation / Fallacy of four terms</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Equivocation occurs when a key word is used with two or more different meanings in the same argument. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“What could be more affordable than free software? But to make sure that it remains free, that users can do what they like with it, we must place a license on it to make sure that will always be freely redistributable.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">One way to avoid this fallacy is to choose your terminology carefully before beginning the argument, and avoid words like “free” which have many meanings.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="analogy" name="analogy" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Extended analogy</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The fallacy of the Extended Analogy often occurs when some suggested general rule is being argued over. The fallacy is to assume that mentioning two different situations, in an argument about a general rule, constitutes a claim that those situations are analogous to each other.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Here’s real example from an online debate about anti-cryptography legislation:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“I believe it is always wrong to oppose the law by breaking it.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Such a position is odious: it implies that you would not have supported Martin Luther King.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Are you saying that cryptography legislation is as important as the struggle for Black liberation? How dare you!”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="elenchi" name="elenchi" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Ignoratio elenchi / Irrelevant conclusion</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The fallacy of Irrelevant Conclusion consists of claiming that an argument supports a particular conclusion when it is actually logically nothing to do with that conclusion.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">For example, a Christian may begin by saying that he will argue that the teachings of Christianity are undoubtedly true. If he then argues at length that Christianity is of great help to many people, no matter how well he argues he will not have shown that Christian teachings are true.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Sadly, these kinds of irrelevant arguments are often successful, because they make people to view the supposed conclusion in a more favorable light.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="natural" name="natural" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Natural Law fallacy / Appeal to Nature</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The Appeal to Nature is a common fallacy in political arguments. One version consists of drawing an analogy between a particular conclusion, and some aspect of the natural world–and then stating that the conclusion is inevitable, because the natural world is similar:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“The natural world is characterized by competition; animals struggle against each other for ownership of limited natural resources. Capitalism, the competitive struggle for ownership of capital, is simply an inevitable part of human nature. It’s how the natural world works.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Another form of appeal to nature is to argue that because human beings are products of the natural world, we must mimic behavior seen in the natural world, and that to do otherwise is “unnatural”:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Of course homosexuality is unnatural. When’s the last time you saw two animals of the same sex mating?”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">An example of “Appeal to Nature” taken to extremes is <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080118085904/http://www.thecourier.com:80/manifest.htm?" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">The Unabomber Manifesto</a>.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="scots" name="scots" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>“No True Scotsman …” fallacy</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Suppose I assert that no Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge. You counter this by pointing out that your friend Angus likes sugar with his porridge. I then say “Ah, yes, but no <em style="box-sizing: border-box;">true</em> Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is an example of an <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#adhoc" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">ad hoc</a> change being used to shore up an assertion, combined with an attempt to <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#equivocation" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">shift the meaning of the words</a> used original assertion; you might call it a combination of fallacies.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="noncausa" name="noncausa" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Non causa pro causa</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The fallacy of Non Causa Pro Causa occurs when something is identified as the cause of an event, but it has not actually been <em style="box-sizing: border-box;">shown</em> to be the cause. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“I took an aspirin and prayed to God, and my headache disappeared. So God cured me of the headache.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is known as a false cause fallacy. Two specific forms of non causa pro causa fallacy are the <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#cumhoc" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">cum hoc ergo propter hoc</a> and <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#posthoc" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">post hoc ergo propter hoc</a> fallacies.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="nonseq" name="nonseq" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Non sequitur</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">A non sequitur is an argument where the conclusion is drawn from premises which aren’t logically connected with it. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Since Egyptians did so much excavation to construct the pyramids, they were well versed in paleontology.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">(Non sequiturs are an important ingredient in a lot of humor. They’re still fallacies, though.)</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="begging" name="begging" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Petitio principii (Begging the question)</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy occurs when the premises are at least as questionable as the conclusion reached. Typically the premises of the argument implicitly assume the result which the argument purports to prove, in a disguised form. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“The Bible is the word of God. The word of God cannot be doubted, and the Bible states that the Bible is true. Therefore the Bible must be true.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Begging the question is similar to <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#circulus" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">circulus in demonstrando</a>, where the conclusion is exactly the same as the premise.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="manyq" name="manyq" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Plurium interrogationum / Many questions</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy occurs when someone demands a simple (or simplistic) answer to a complex question.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Are higher taxes an impediment to business or not? Yes or no?”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="posthoc" name="posthoc" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Post hoc ergo propter hoc</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The fallacy of Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc occurs when something is assumed to be the cause of an event merely because it happened before that event. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“The Soviet Union collapsed after instituting state atheism. Therefore we must avoid atheism for the same reasons.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is another type of <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#noncausa" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">false cause fallacy</a>.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="herring" name="herring" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Red herring</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This fallacy is committed when someone introduces irrelevant material to the issue being discussed, so that everyone’s attention is diverted away from the points made, towards a different conclusion.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“You may claim that the death penalty is an ineffective deterrent against crime–but what about the victims of crime? How do you think surviving family members feel when they see the man who murdered their son kept in prison at their expense? Is it right that they should pay for their son’s murderer to be fed and housed?”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="reification" name="reification" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Reification / Hypostatization</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">Reification occurs when an abstract concept is treated as a concrete thing.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“I noticed you described him as ‘evil.’ Where does this ‘evil’ exist within the brain? You can’t show it to me, so I claim it doesn’t exist, and no man is ‘evil.'”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="shifting" name="shifting" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Shifting the burden of proof</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The burden of proof is always on the person asserting something. Shifting the burden of proof, a special case of <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#ignorantiam" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad Ignorantiam</a>, is the fallacy of putting the burden of proof on the person who denies or questions the assertion. The source of the fallacy is the assumption that something is true unless proven otherwise.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">For further discussion of this idea, see the “<a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/mathew-intro/#assertions" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;" title="Introduction to Atheism">Introduction to Atheism</a>” document.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“OK, so if you don’t think the grey aliens have gained control of the US government, can you prove it?”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="slope" name="slope" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Slippery slope argument</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This argument states that should one event occur, so will other harmful events. There is no proof made that the harmful events are caused by the first event. For example:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“If we legalize marijuana, then more people would start to take crack and heroin, and we’d have to legalize those too. Before long we’d have a nation full of drug-addicts on welfare. Therefore we cannot legalize marijuana.”</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="strawman" name="strawman" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Straw man</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The straw man fallacy is when you misrepresent someone else’s position so that it can be attacked more easily, knock down that misrepresented position, then conclude that the original position has been demolished. It’s a fallacy because it fails to deal with the actual arguments that have been made.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“To be an atheist, you have to believe with absolute certainty that there is no God. In order to convince yourself with absolute certainty, you must examine all the Universe and all the places where God could possibly be. Since you obviously haven’t, your position is indefensible.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">The above straw man argument appears at about once a week on the net. If you can’t see what’s wrong with it, read the “<a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/mathew-intro/" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Introduction to Atheism</a>” document.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="tuquoque" name="tuquoque" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Tu quoque</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is the famous “you too” fallacy. It occurs if you argue that an action is acceptable because your opponent has performed it. For instance:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“You’re just being randomly abusive.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“So? You’ve been abusive too.”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">This is a personal attack, and is therefore a special case of <a href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/constructing-a-logical-argument/#hominem" style="box-sizing: border-box; text-decoration-line: none;">Argumentum ad Hominem</a>.</p><h4 class="wp-block-heading" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;"><a id="isatype" name="isatype" style="box-sizing: border-box;"></a>Undistributed Middle / “A is based on B” fallacies / “… is a type of …” fallacies</h4><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">These fallacies occur if you attempt to argue that things are in some way similar, but you don’t actually specify in what way they are similar. Examples:</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Isn’t history based upon faith? If so, then isn’t the Bible also a form of history?”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Islam is based on faith, Christianity is based on faith, so isn’t Islam a form of Christianity?”</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box;">“Cats are a form of animal based on carbon chemistry, dogs are a form of animal based on carbon chemistry, so aren’t dogs a form of cat?”</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-31129388823606050552024-01-15T13:05:00.002+01:002024-01-15T13:05:47.584+01:00What Happened to China's "Apache Attack Helicopter" ?<p> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q2wDG977-Qw</p><p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CKSOa_wjEc</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-24699006977499424972024-01-07T14:55:00.002+01:002024-01-07T14:55:23.235+01:00vocabular limba chineza <p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: left; 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color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;"><img height="393" src="https://i1.wp.com/botanwang.com/sites/default/files/styles/632_n/public/field/image/fe-ngo-bvx3G7RkOts-unsplash.jpg?itok=zBvlblXG" style="border: 0px; display: block; height: auto; margin: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px;" width="700" /></p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;"><a class="st_tag internal_tag" href="https://www.bannedbook.org/bnews/tag/%e4%b8%ad%e5%85%b1/" rel="tag" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" title="标签 中共 下的日志">中共</a>的人口数据有假,这几乎是人所共知的事实,但如何识破,如何判断<a class="st_tag internal_tag" href="https://www.bannedbook.org/bnews/tag/%e9%80%a0%e5%81%87/" rel="tag" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" title="标签 造假 下的日志">造假</a>的方向和程度却一直是个难题,使得中共荒唐的人口数据大行于世,掩盖了中共深重的罪恶,加深了对世人的伤害。</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">最近几年以来,民间的高人也越来越聪明了,他们试图通过一些对<span class="wp_keywordlink" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a href="https://www.bannedbook.org/forum2/topic1642.html" style="color: #12a3eb; margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank" title="正见网《新生》">新生</a></span>儿必用品使用数量的逐年分析,获得更加趋近真实的人口数据,从而使中共的造假大幕被撕开了一角,世人可以看到中共是用什么手段玩弄数据,从而翻手为云、覆手为雨的愚弄民众的。</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;"><a class="st_tag internal_tag" href="https://www.bannedbook.org/bnews/tag/%E5%8D%A1%E4%BB%8B%E8%8B%97/" rel="tag" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" title="标签 卡介苗 下的日志">卡介苗</a>批签发量就是其中最有代表性一个数据。卡介苗是<a class="st_tag internal_tag" href="https://www.bannedbook.org/bnews/tag/%E6%96%B0%E7%94%9F%E5%84%BF/" rel="tag" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" title="标签 新生儿 下的日志">新生儿</a>出生后就要注射的,用于预防肺结核,每个新生儿都需要强制皮下注射一针,每个新生儿出生三个月内有三次接种机会,但一般都是出生后24小时就要完成注射的。所以卡介苗的注射次数是与<a class="st_tag internal_tag" href="https://www.bannedbook.org/bnews/tag/%E5%87%BA%E7%94%9F%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3/" rel="tag" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" title="标签 出生人口 下的日志">出生人口</a>基本相等的一个数据。问题在于卡介苗的产品包装为每支0.5毫升,而每个宝宝每次只需要0.1毫升,所以一支卡介苗是可以为多人完成注射的。那么怎么估算卡介苗的支数(批签发量)与注射次数的关系呢?表面上看每支卡介苗最多可以为5人注射,其实不要忘了这中间是有损耗的,排气和针管内壁附着会损耗一部分,所以最多一支卡介苗可以为3人注射。</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">卡介苗产品要求全程冷链运输保存,产品的保质期为2年,一旦开瓶,必须在24小时之内使用完毕,否则就得扔掉。这种情况下,医院不可能大规模存储造成浪费,所以卡介苗的批签发量与事实的使用量是基本没有差距的。对于超级大城市的大型妇产医院,每天可能有上百个<a class="st_tag internal_tag" href="https://www.bannedbook.org/bnews/tag/%E5%AE%9D%E5%AE%9D%E5%87%BA%E7%94%9F/" rel="tag" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" title="标签 宝宝出生 下的日志">宝宝出生</a>,在这种地方,卡介苗的注射人数可以达到2-3,但<span class="wp_keywordlink_affiliate" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a href="https://www.bannedbook.org/" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank" title="中国">中国</a></span>的有85%的人口是居住在中小城市和农村地区的,大部分医院可能一天只能有几个宝宝出生,在这种情况下,一支卡介苗对应的注射次数就只有1-2次。那全国平均下来,这个卡介苗的每瓶针数是多少呢?按照《<span class="wp_keywordlink" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a href="https://www.bannedbook.org/forum2/topic1089.html" style="color: #12a3eb; margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank" title="大国空巢">大国空巢</a></span>》的作者<a class="st_tag internal_tag" href="https://www.bannedbook.org/bnews/tag/%e6%98%93%e5%af%8c%e8%b4%a4/" rel="tag" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" title="标签 易富贤 下的日志">易富贤</a>的文章,每只卡介苗对应的注射次数大约是1.2-1.5针,并称这一数据是“医学常识”(参考易富贤文章:“外泄数据显示中国人口正在快速萎缩”),我们可以按照平均数1.35作为计算的依据。</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">我们从网上获得了2007年到2017年的卡介苗批签发量数据,2017年以后的每年数据,我们搜集到了2021年,由于民间针对卡介苗数据对<a class="st_tag internal_tag" href="https://www.bannedbook.org/bnews/tag/%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E9%80%A0%E5%81%87/" rel="tag" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" title="标签 中共造假 下的日志">中共造假</a>的质疑,2022年以后中共索性取消了这个数据的发布,所以我们就使用2007到2021年的卡介苗数据(拟合分析时舍弃2007年代的数据),在加上中共<a class="st_tag internal_tag" href="https://www.bannedbook.org/bnews/tag/%e7%bb%9f%e8%ae%a1%e5%b1%80/" rel="tag" style="margin: 0px 1px 0px 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" title="标签 统计局 下的日志">统计局</a>自行发布的历年新生儿出生数据,来揭示一下中共造假的手法。</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">下图的卡介苗批签发量来自于证券公司的报告,从图中我们可以看到卡介苗年使用量除了随着出生人口波动外,每年间还忽上忽下的波动。这种波动是因为如果上一年采购多了造成剩余,那下一年就必须减小采购以避免浪费,对应这种锯齿形曲线,我们需要把相关两年或三年的数据作均值化处理。</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;"><img src="https://i1.wp.com/botanwang.com/sites/default/files/images/%23sdfgs%20(1).jpg" style="border: 0px; display: block; height: 388px; margin: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; width: 600px;" /></p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">数据平滑从处理之后,我们试图作一下线性拟合分析:</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;"><img src="https://i1.wp.com/botanwang.com/sites/default/files/images/%23sdfgs%20(2).jpg" style="border: 0px; display: block; height: 366px; margin: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; width: 600px;" /></p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">上图中有两条曲线,如果中共的造假手法只是单一对实际出生人口乘一个系数的话,那么统计局统计出来人口对应于卡介苗批签发量必然是一条过原点的直线,然后拟合结果显示是完全不相关的。</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">如果统计局的造假手法是既对真实人口乘一个系数,同时又加上一个固定数值进行修正的话,统计局的人口数据对应于卡介苗签发量必然是一条不过原点的直线,然而拟合的结果不太支持这一结论。首先是卡介苗的浪费量太大,不太符合1.3-1.5的医学常识,然后是相关性只有0.67,不足以支持这一结论。</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">可笑的是,当我们用尽力气捕捉统计局的“出生人口”数据与卡介苗签发量关系的时候,最终我们得到的是一个一元五次方程!形如下图所示:</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;"><img src="https://i1.wp.com/botanwang.com/sites/default/files/images/%23sdfgs%20(3).jpg" style="border: 0px; display: block; height: 403px; margin: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; width: 600px;" /></p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">我们不得不感叹统计局老爷们的智商,难道它们造假的手段竟然超出了地球人的智力?其实这只是笑话,统计局的造假手法完全是随机的,就是让出生人口的数据看上去漂亮一些,下降是大的趋势,但不能下降太多太快,要符合党的意志,所以完全无法揣摩统计老爷们的修正手法。</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;">那如果我们用每瓶1.35针这一数据对应于真实的出生入口,就可以看到统计局造假的数量了,最终可以得到下图:</p><p style="background-color: #eff6fe; color: #555555; font-family: SimSun, Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 40px; margin: 15px 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding: 0px;"><img src="https://i1.wp.com/botanwang.com/sites/default/files/images/%23sdfgs%20(4).jpg" style="border: 0px; display: block; height: 377px; margin: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; width: 600px;" /></p><p> </p><h1 class="style-scope ytd-watch-metadata" style="-webkit-box-orient: vertical; -webkit-line-clamp: 2; background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 0px; color: #0f0f0f; display: -webkit-box; font-family: "YouTube Sans", Roboto, sans-serif; line-height: 2.8rem; margin: 0px; max-height: 5.6rem; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; text-overflow: ellipsis; word-break: break-word;"><yt-formatted-string class="style-scope ytd-watch-metadata" force-default-style=""><span style="font-size: small;">China doesn’t have 1.4</span><span style="font-size: 2rem;"> </span><span style="font-size: small;">billion people. Its population is under 1 billion</span></yt-formatted-string></h1><p>youtube.com/watch?v=lTWh9rzW-Do</p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-18199148857696056072023-06-26T11:19:00.003+02:002023-06-26T11:19:37.902+02:00How The U.S. Caught A Chinese Spy<p> <span style="background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05); color: #0f0f0f; font-family: Roboto, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; white-space-collapse: preserve;">CNBC’s Eamon Javers explores how U.S. companies are in the crosshairs of China’s economic espionage efforts, all while trying to do business in one of the world’s biggest markets. In this in-depth report, Javers examines the unprecedented case of Xu Yanjun, a spy from China who was convicted in U.S. federal court of trying to steal GE engine secrets, and what it reveals about China’s plans to take on Boeing, GE Aviation, Honeywell and the rest of America’s aerospace industry. Watch the video to find out how U.S. law enforcement caught a spy from China’s Ministry of State Security.</span></p><p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ydtETPStEI</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-40551534058287463452023-06-08T11:46:00.000+02:002023-06-08T11:46:55.736+02:00c919<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhikLJK3Rx-iwhAa0-zk8GIPlCsXsluygZh_xqbPH3_iAeUTWHbE77ca_f1GVeG0uzR6xNc5ToW3YbiRxAbQdJOi9sXmms1frS3FxZUrsxo15sk9mzvZMVYeuxToS-6FoK490-9H9zN90m3EC49gYGK4Ci_CdvUqu7ktw9DW6YIK-AYHfMLzjFP0cvmMw" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="1401" data-original-width="2000" height="412" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhikLJK3Rx-iwhAa0-zk8GIPlCsXsluygZh_xqbPH3_iAeUTWHbE77ca_f1GVeG0uzR6xNc5ToW3YbiRxAbQdJOi9sXmms1frS3FxZUrsxo15sk9mzvZMVYeuxToS-6FoK490-9H9zN90m3EC49gYGK4Ci_CdvUqu7ktw9DW6YIK-AYHfMLzjFP0cvmMw=w590-h412" width="590" /></a></div><br /><p></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-5038016954968821732023-05-26T16:52:00.001+02:002023-05-26T16:52:37.797+02:00Forgotten voices from the Great War: the Chinese Labour Corps<p> </p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="layout_main_table" style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: Palatino, "Libre Baskerville", serif; font-size: 14px; width: 964.006px;"><tbody><tr><td class="c" style="padding: 0px; vertical-align: top;"><div class="text_for_create_speech"><div class="fix" style="clear: both; float: none;"></div><div class="body_main_content" id="body_main_content"><div class="item_view article_view site_item_view_4411"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="sites_table" style="width: 964.006px;"><tbody><tr><td class="blockLeft" style="vertical-align: top;"><h1 style="font-size: 24px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Forgotten voices from the Great War: the Chinese Labour Corps</h1><div style="font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://apjjf.org/-Alex-Calvo" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">Alex Calvo</a> and <a href="https://apjjf.org/-Bao-Qiaoni" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">Bao Qiaoni</a></div></td><td class="blockRight" style="vertical-align: top; width: 250px;"><a class="article_pdf_link" href="https://apjjf.org/-Bao-Qiaoni--Alex-Calvo/4411/article.pdf" style="color: #0099cd; float: right; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;"><img alt="" src="https://apjjf.org/template/images/pdf-icon.png" style="border: none; width: 32px;" /></a><div><div>December 21, 2015</div><div>Volume 13 | Issue 51 | Number 1</div><div>Article ID 4411</div></div><div class="fix" style="clear: both; float: none;"></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="sites_table sites_table_content" style="width: 964.006px;"><tbody><tr><td class="blockLeft" style="vertical-align: top;"><div class="article_description" style="margin-bottom: 20px; position: relative;"><div class="external_edit_hide text_unique_id_8090_1685101960"><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"> </p><table align="center" border="0" style="width: 600px;"><tbody><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle;"><a class="zoomed_img" href="https://apjjf.org/data/44111.jpg" style="color: #0099cd; display: inline-block; outline: none; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><img alt="" height="234" src="https://apjjf.org/data/44111.jpg" style="border: none;" width="300" /></a></td><td style="vertical-align: middle;"><a class="zoomed_img" href="https://apjjf.org/data/44112.jpg" style="color: #0099cd; display: inline-block; outline: none; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><img alt="" height="218" src="https://apjjf.org/data/44112.jpg" style="border: none;" width="300" /></a></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Cap badge of the Chinese Labour Corps</strong></span></td><td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">CLC personnel moving sacks of corn at Boulogne, on 12 August 1917</strong></span></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Abstract</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">The one hundredth anniversary of the Great War is prompting a renewed effort at both the popular and academic levels to ensure that the different units and countries involved are not forgotten. While not supplying combat troops, China entered the First World War on the side of the Allies, furnishing much-needed labourers, 140,000 by conservative estimates and possibly more, who played an essential role on the Western Front and other theatres, taking responsibility for a wide range of tasks. Among others, unloading military supplies and handling ammunitions, building barracks and other military facilities, digging trenches, and even agriculture and forest management. While their essential contribution was recognized in British documents, both Paris and London saw them as a temporary expedient, to be ended as soon as the war was over. Furthermore, their deployment gave rise to all sorts of culture and language clashes, in addition to the dangers of travelling to Europe and surviving in close proximity to the battle field. However, beyond these travails, the Chinese Labour Corps left a significant legacy, with members seeing the world, experiencing other nations, and often becoming literate. More widely, despite being on the winning side, China's failure to secure any gains at Versailles prompted the May 4<sup style="color: #0099cd; line-height: 0px;">th</sup> Movement and can be seen as a key juncture in the long and winding road from empire to nation-state. It is an important reminder of the global nature of the Great War, whose impact extended far from the battle field to all corners of the world.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Keywords</strong></p><table align="left" border="0" style="width: 300px;"><tbody><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle;"><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a class="zoomed_img" href="https://apjjf.org/data/44113.jpg" style="color: #0099cd; display: inline-block; outline: none; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><img alt="" height="400" src="https://apjjf.org/data/44113.jpg" style="border: none;" width="300" /></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Tombstone of a CLC member, a physical reminder of their legacy</strong></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">WWI, Great War, CLC, Chinese Labour Corps, Nation-Building, Versailles</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Introduction: Asia and the Great War</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">The one hundredth anniversary of the Great War has prompted renewed interest in the conflict and a major drive by myriad institutions and individuals to inform the public and assure that the sacrifices made one century ago are never forgotten. While the main theatres of the war were in Europe, there are reasons why it is called the First World War, since its nature and scope were truly global. This includes Asia, which may have seen limited combat operations (other than in South-Western Asia, part of the Middle East) but where a number of countries made key contributions to the Allied cause. They include Japan, whose navy helped secure the Pacific, while her troops took over German territories, and took part in the conquest of Tsingtao; China, which contributed much-needed workers; and India, whose soldiers helped stabilize the Western Front in late 1914 and later played a key role in a wide range of theaters, including Gallipoli, East Africa, and Mesopotamia.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">While such contributions were recognized by contemporary media and are well documented, with the passage of time there is little public awareness of them. The first centenary of the war is, however, prompting many public and private organizations in countries like Japan,<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">1</sup></a> India, and China<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">2</sup></a>, and among communities from those nations, to make renewed efforts to make sure that their contribution is duly recognized, both at home and abroad, and in particular among their war-time Allies. This is an aspect of the renewed geopolitical competition in the Asia-Pacific region, which also features countries vying to stress their past roles in world conflicts.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">China at the outset of the War: Nation Building, Limited Sovereignty, and Collective Security</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">The outbreak of the Great War caught China in the midst of a giant yet incomplete transformation from Empire to Republic, an exercise in nation building that would take decades to complete and see myriad wars and turmoil amid fragmentation and widespread human suffering.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">3</sup></a> The Revolutionary Party(中华革命党), renamed Guomindang (国民党) in 1919, had been forced in 1916 to cede the presidency to Yuan Shikai, and warlords ruled much of the country, with significant foreign influence. In 1916 Duan Qirui, a graduate of the Beiyang Military Academy who had furthered his studies in Germany, became prime minister following Yuan's death. One of the dossiers on his table was whether to join the Great War. One of the factors at play was the possibility of recovering the German concessions in Shandong Province, and more generally of improving China's international standing, something which, among others, leading intellectual Liang Qichao hoped for.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">4</sup></a> Pressure also came from the United States, at that time moving towards joining the war, and from the Japanese, who had decided on a policy of loans to China and other financial incentives in exchange for recognition of their position in northern regions which Tokyo considered a sphere of influence necessary to protect its Korean colony and shield it from Russian ambitions, following its failed bid to impose the “twenty one demands” on China in 1915.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">5</sup></a> These wide-ranging demands were tantamount to turning China into a Japanese protectorate. Among others, Tokyo demanded freedom of movement and the right to purchase land and carry out business for Japanese nationals in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia, a promise “not to cede or lease to any other Power any harbour or bay on or any island along the coast of China”, and the appointment of Japanese advisors.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">6</sup></a> In March 1917 Duan convinced Parliament to break diplomatic relations with Germany, and, after a struggle over who had the constitutional power to issue it, a declaration of war by the cabinet followed in August.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">7</sup></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Thus, although her own nation-building process was far from complete, Chinese leaders decided to join a conflict which, while global in nature, had its origin and main focus thousands of miles away. Ideally, being on the winning side would help China consolidate and increase her national stature, but as we shall see later, things would turn out quite differently. What was clear in 1916 was that whereas China had little, if any, expeditionary military capability to offer to the Allies, it had something they desperately needed: manpower. The concept was simple: import Chinese labour, thus freeing British and French young men for combat duties. Although the Chinese and Japanese governments concluded a military agreement whereby Tokyo would provide “aid, advisers and instructors to develop the Chinese War Participation Army to support the Allied cause,” no troops were deployed to Europe, and Japanese aid simply served the purpose of reinforcing Duan’s troops concentrated in North China.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">8</sup></a> Germany, on the other hand, provided financial support to Sun Yat-sen's alternative government in Guangzhou, in the hope of pushing China back into neutrality.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">9</sup></a> As was the rule in those years, factional interests frequently took precedence over the exercise of national power.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">The Chinese Labour Corps: China's major contribution to the war effort</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;"></strong>Logistics is often forgotten, or at least rarely granted a degree of attention commensurate with its true importance, in many military histories. In the case of the Western Front in the Great War the distances involved were not huge, in particular if compared to some theatres in the Second World War, but the industrial nature of the fighting, the dual demands of artillery and fortification, and the sheer number of troops involved, meant a strong and growing demand for labour behind the trenches. Although some machinery and vehicles were available, building and repairing railways and roads, moving supplies, mail, troops, and the injured, laying down and maintaining telephone lines, plus constructing all sorts of military facilities, were tasks mainly undertaken with a mixture of human and animal labour. Many labour units were created. The Royal Engineers, for example, set up eleven labour battalions, and in January 1917 the British Labour Corps was born. By the time of the armistice, it had grown to almost 400,000. Staffed by officers not medically fit for front-line duties (often returned wounded), it regularly operated within range of enemy fire, and some of its units were employed as emergency infantry during the spring 1918 German offensives.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">The Allies quickly realized that their manpower pool was simply not large enough to feed this ever-growing need for construction and logistics labour. At first arrangements were often ad hoc, but the scale of the fighting, the inadequacy of some earlier approaches, and the realization that this would be no short conflict, soon gave way to a more systematic approach. France was the first to tap into China's huge labour force. Great Britain followed, with both countries already in negotiations with China in the summer of 1916.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">10</sup></a> According to the Official History: '…although some labour units were raised and eventually labourers from various parts of the Empire and China were brought to France, the numbers were never at any period sufficient for the demands of a great army operating in a friendly country'. Despite this, it is clear that Chinese workers played a crucial role in sustaining the Allied armies in the field. Precise numbers are not available, with some sources mentioning that in August 1918, 96,000 were enrolled in the British Labour Corps, with a further thirty thousand working for France,<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">11</sup></a> but Chinese sources stress that the specific number is disputable and that 140,000 in total for both France and Britain is a conservative estimate.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">12</sup></a> Guoqi Xu notes the “sizable discrepancy among the figures provided by different sources” and provides a range from several authors.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">13</sup></a> Among others, he mentions the Dictionary of the First World War by Stephen Pope and Elizabeth-Anne Wheale, eds. (320,000)<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">14</sup></a>, Arthur Philip Jones (150,000 Chinese workers in France, Mesopotamia, and Russia)<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">15</sup></a>, Chen Sanjing (between 175,000 and 200,000 adding those recruited by France and Great Britain)<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">16</sup></a>, and CLC interpreter Gu Xinqqing (175,000 again as a joint figure)<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">17</sup></a>. He also quotes a US War Department telegram (97,000 recruited by London, 40,000 plus 1,500 specialists by Paris)<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">18</sup></a>. We could add that, although Paris was first to tap China's vast labour pool, there were precedents in Great Britain for the employment of Chinese at times of war to free military and naval personnel from other duties. This includes the Napoleonic Wars, during which 'Chinese men who worked in merchant ships were then used by the Royal Navy in support roles to provide cover for the British men who were away fighting, such as ships’ porters'.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">19</sup></a> London also used colonial workers in the Indian, Egyptian, and South African Native Labour Corps.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">The Individual Experience of Chinese Workers: Tasks, Dangers, and Opportunities</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;"></strong>Even before China had formally declared war, a processing plan was set up in Shandong Province, with the purpose of screening and hiring labourers. Located near the Royal Navy's base at Weihaiwei, it was followed by a second facility in the port of Qingdao. Recruitment was not difficult, given the region's poverty and instability and the high wages offered. These consisted of twenty Chinese dollars as a starting bonus, food and clothing, and ten dollars per month partly payable to their families. The medical examination was focused on tuberculosis, trachoma (a viral disease of the eye, then prevalent in Shandong), and venereal diseases.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">20</sup></a> Some 100,000 were selected, issued a serial number in a dog tag around their wrists,<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">21</sup></a> and sprayed prior to embarkation. Many still donned a queue and were urged to cut it.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Travel to Europe was not without its dangers. Already in 1916 a ship carrying Chinese workers to France<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">22</sup></a> had been sunk by a German submarine in the Mediterranean, with the loss of 543,<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">23</sup></a> prompting the use of an alternative trans-Pacific route across Canada by train.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">24</sup></a> Once in the Old Continent, although their contracts said they would not be deployed in or near the front, they often found themselves under enemy fire or dealing with other dangers, such as unexploded ammunitions.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">25</sup></a> Illness was an additional hazard (including the Spanish Flu from 1918), together with the harsh climate and unfamiliar food, despite which in December 2018 “Colonel Wetherall said that the Chinese suffered very little from ill-health; out of a total strength of some 93,000 Chinese in France, there were only about 1,500 in hospital.” <a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">26</sup></a> In addition to those lost at sea, more than 2,000 died. Their tombs can be found in France, Flanders, and England, some in special cemeteries.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Members of the Chinese Labour Corps were distributed in 500-strong companies, under British officers and Chinese foremen. The language barrier was a significant problem, for example when an American soldier said “let’s go,” which sounds like “GOU” in Chinese (meaning “dog”) it nearly caused a rebellion among Chinese labourers.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">27</sup></a> Many translators were hired, while efforts were conducted to recruit Chinese-speaking British officers. The latter's number was small, not only because there were not that many Britons resident in China who had mastered the language but because most of those able and willing to serve sought to join a combat unit. British officers never saw their Chinese Labour Corps counterparts as true equals.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">28</sup></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">A typical schedule was ten working hours per day, seven days per week.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">29</sup></a> Although under military discipline and severe restrictions on their movement, to a certain extent resulting in segregation, authorities made efforts to accommodate some of their customs. An example was the free days they got during Chinese festivals.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">30</sup></a> An effort was made to facilitate postal communication with their families, despite censorship and the fact that many were illiterate. The resulting letters (up to fifty thousand per month) are a very useful source to learn about their roles, thoughts, and living conditions. The YMCA played a key role in their welfare, organizing recreational activities and literacy classes. Hong Kong- and US-educated James Yen created a 1,000-character vocabulary and the <em>Chinese Workers' Weekly</em>, also writing many letters for illiterate labourers.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">31</sup></a> As a result of various literacy drives, it is estimated that some two thirds of the members of the Chinese Labour Corps returned being able to read and write, albeit to a limited extent, whereas originally more than eighty percent were illiterate.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">32</sup></a> Classes were so popular that they ran out of materials.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">33</sup></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Their work was varied and ranged from unloading military supplies and handling ammunition to building barracks, digging trenches, and constructing fortifications. It even extended to agriculture and forest management.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">34</sup></a> The minutes of a meeting on “Chinese Labour in France,” held on January 18, 1918 at 10 Downing Street with the prime minister in the chair (and following a War Cabinet meeting on the same subject the day before), reveal that at first labour tended to be allocated to the different services from a central pool, but this gave way to the view that it was better to second at least a minimum to each department, so that, among others, the members of the Corps could specialize and achieve greater proficiency at a given kind of work, and their supervisors become more familiar with them. That was the position defended by Sir Eric Geddes, who explained that it was the system employed with the first seven thousand Chinese workers brought to France by the British Department of Transportation. General Travers Clarke supported the “desirability of keeping the same men at the same job,” adding that “it was done now at a considerable extent.” He spoke in favour of retaining a central pool, which, while compatible with the described specialization, allowed a measure of flexibility. Eric Geddes said that labour was “nobody's child” and defended the permanent allocation of “a minimum number of men” to departments, so that “they could put in their interpreters and N.C.O.s and control would increase rather than diminish.” Sir Joseph MacLay and Sir Guy Granet concurred in these views of Eric Geddes.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">35</sup></a></p><table align="center" border="0" style="width: 600px;"><tbody><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle;"><a class="zoomed_img" href="https://apjjf.org/data/44114.jpg" style="color: #0099cd; display: inline-block; outline: none; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><img alt="" height="165" src="https://apjjf.org/data/44114.jpg" style="border: none;" width="300" /></a></td><td style="vertical-align: middle;"><a class="zoomed_img" href="https://apjjf.org/data/44115.jpg" style="color: #0099cd; display: inline-block; outline: none; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><img alt="" height="180" src="https://apjjf.org/data/44115.jpg" style="border: none;" width="300" /></a></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Handling ammunition was one of the many tasks the CLC performed</strong></span></td><td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Building roads was a very important task for the CLC, given the need to sustain industrial warfare on a grand scale in the Western Front</strong></span></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">While labouring long hours in uncomfortable and often hazardous jobs, their stay in Europe was for many their first opportunity to experience life not only outside China but beyond their village or province. As often happens, contact with a different reality prompted more than a few to question their country's place in the world and to wonder how it could be changed. Contact with fellow citizens and with nationals from other Allied nations may have helped the members of the Chinese Labour Corps to develop a sense of national identity and of their country's place in the world.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">36</sup></a> It should also be emphasized that, while originally intended to carry out unskilled tasks, members of the Chinese Labour Corps often ended up being responsible for much more complex tasks, even tank maintenance, overcoming the extensive prejudice that saw them as hard working but incapable of performing technologically-demanding jobs.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">37</sup></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">The British Government View: A Commodity? Yet a Valuable One</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">A look at British official documents reveals a dual view of the Chinese Labour Corps. On the one hand, its members often appear as little more than objects. They are referred to in terse terms, as if one was talking about a piece of equipment. On the other, the vital nature of their contribution to the war effort often appears openly, without any attempt to disguise it. This is clear even in the immediate post-war period, once the hostilities were over but the need for labour remained high. For example, the minutes of the December 4, 1918 meeting of the War Cabinet included an item devoted to the “Repatriation of Chinese coolies.” Faced with a proposal from the Ministry of Shipping to repatriate a number of workers, taking advantage of available space in two passenger ships, “the Adjutant-General said that he had taken this matter up with G.H.Q. in France, who were averse from the idea of repatriating Chinese coolies at the present time. There was a great deal of work to be done, e.g., handling cargo at the ports, upkeep of roads, filling up the shell-holes, and rolling up the barbed wire, for which civilian labour would have to be engaged if the Chinese were withdrawn.”<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">38</sup></a> At the meeting, the British prime minister pointed out that while there was a shortage of labour in France, “the amount of work requiring this class of labour must have greatly diminished since the cessation of hostilities,” and it was decided to arrange the repatriation of five thousand Chinese workers, with a further five thousand to follow.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">39</sup></a> Thus, while essential, and openly recognized as such in official documents, the decision was made that Chinese workers, viewed as a temporary asset, were to be returned to their native country as soon as possible.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Direct Hiring and the End of the Comprador System: a Precedent for General Stilwell's Training Drive?</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;"></strong>At the same January 18, 1918 meeting referred to earlier, Colonel MacLaren Brown said that during the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, with which he was familiar, “the recruiting and control of the Chinese was kept in the hands of the Compradors. The Railway Company dealt only with and through the Compradors.” While conceding that in that case “the Chinese understood the system and it worked well”, Colonel Brown explained that “in the case of the Chinese in Northern France they have been recruited on a different basis and under special conditions,” a reference to the system of individual contracts outlined earlier.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">40</sup></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">We can thus see how the Great War led to a change in the way Chinese labour was employed, dispensing with middlemen. During the Second World War, a similar change would take place to some extent in the military sphere. When training Chinese soldiers at Ramgarh (British India) from 1942, in an attempt to develop a number of modern, capable divisions, US General Joseph Stilwell accepted the recruits sent by the government of the Republic of China but insisted that they be paid individually, in a bid to prevent corruption by officers pocketing their men's pay.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">41</sup></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Considering, and Rejecting, the Use of Chinese Troops</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">France did not just initiate the recruitment of Chinese workers. It also endeavoured to secure the deployment in the Western Front of Chinese troops,<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">42</sup></a> although the move was ultimately rejected by London and never took place. Even before the Chinese declaration of war, General Ferdinand Foch had argued for the need to get China to raise “pioneer battalions,” between 1,200 and 1,500 strong. In an August 11, 1917 secret report, he pointed out that, “given the population of China, the number of battalions which can be raised is theoretically limitless.” Foch asked Paris to press China to dispatch between seventy and eighty battalions. Such units, mostly officered by the Chinese themselves, would have undertaken construction and logistical work near and at the front, making it unnecessary to individually hire further Chinese workers.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">43</sup></a> France did not manage to persuade the United Kingdom, with the War Cabinet noting at its February 4, 1918 that “the Supreme War Council do not accept Joint Note No. 11 of the Permanent Military Representatives on the subject of Chinese battalions.”<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">44</sup></a> Logistics did not seem to be the reason behind British opposition despite the shortage of Allied shipping and the unsuitability of Chinese vessels for oceanic voyages described in the same missive.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">45</sup></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">While not the focus of the paper, it should also be mentioned that a small number of Canadian citizens of Chinese origin volunteered and managed to be accepted for service, despite the refusal to enrol them in, for example, British Columbia. While sources estimate them at, at most, three hundred, 'Those of Chinese origin who are known to have volunteered included Frederick Lee and Wee Hong Louie (enlisted in Kamloops), William Thomas Louie (Calgary), Tung On Hong (Sudbury), and Victor Fong (Quebec).'<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">46</sup></a></p><table align="right" border="0" style="width: 300px;"><tbody><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle;"><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a class="zoomed_img" href="https://apjjf.org/data/44116.jpg" style="color: #0099cd; display: inline-block; outline: none; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><img alt="" height="180" src="https://apjjf.org/data/44116.jpg" style="border: none;" width="300" /></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">CLC recruits in Weihaiwei doing physical training before leaving for Europe</strong></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">The Ultimate Impact of China's Contribution to the War Effort: Logistics, Frustration and Revolution</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;"></strong>As explained, life was not easy for the members of the Chinese Labour Corps, and a number made the ultimate sacrifice. On the positive side, however, they could acquire some savings, widen their horizons, and some gained a measure of literacy. Many went back home with the desire and ability to play a more meaningful role in the future of their country. The presence of Chinese in France did not end with the Great War, and included some key figures in Chinese communism who took part in the Work-Study Program, including Deng Xiaoping and Zhou Enlai. Deng lived in France from 1920 to 1925, where he became active in politics for the first time and joined the Chinese Communist Party.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">47</sup></a> Zhou was in the country from 1920 to 1924, playing a leading role among Chinese work-study students.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">48</sup></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">At the international level, the outcome of the First World War was frustrating for China. Despite being on the winning side and a participant in the Versailles Peace negotiations, China was unable to secure any significant gains. Japan, a more powerful and cohesive state which had entered the war earlier, pre-empted Chinese moves and succeeded Germany in securing rights in China and a number of Pacific Ocean islands. The 62-strong Chinese delegation was attacked following revelations of Japan's confidential agreements with France, Great Britain and Italy, on the one hand, and Duan Qirui on the other. US President Wilson, originally sympathetic to China, agreed on April 30, 1919 with French PM Georges Clemenceau and British PM David Lloyd George to the transfer of all German rights in Shandong Province to Japan. This “flagrant denial of the new Wilsonian principles of open diplomacy and self-determination,” inflamed Chinese public opinion and prompted many protests.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">49</sup></a> Enraged, Chinese students in Paris surrounded the hotel where the Chinese delegation was staying in order to prevent it from signing the Peace Treaty as decided by the government in Beijing, which sent a telegram to that effect.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">50</sup></a> Mass demonstrations in Beijing on 4 May would give a name to a movement which sought to renew China and raise her to the position of equal among international powers. One of its immediate consequences was the emergence of a new standard for the written language, based on the modern Beijing dialect, which would replace classical Chinese..<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">51</sup></a> It would also lead to the creation of the Chinese Communist Party.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">China's intervention in the First World War, while contributing to the Allied victory, failed to secure for Beijing any significant geopolitical gains. Indeed, by boosting Japan and weakening the British Empire, it could even be argued that the war facilitated the later clash between the two Asian giants. In its wake, London put an end to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, sided with the United States, and started work on a new naval base in Singapore, designed to provide a measure of deterrence. The Great War, however, transformed the lives of many Chinese, both members of the Labour Corps and students and intellectuals at home, and helped reinforce the conviction that the country needed to become stronger and renew itself in order to be treated as an equal in the international sphere.<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">52</sup></a> It was yet another reminder, following less than a generation after the First Sino-Japanese War, that unlike Japan, China had not yet transformed itself into a modern nation state and gained a measure of recognition as an equal by the leading Western powers of the time.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Geopolitics, Public Diplomacy, and Soft Power: Competing Narratives.</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">The importance of commemorating the First World War and of highlighting their national contribution to the allied victory has not gone unnoticed in Beijing, New Delhi, or Tokyo. The fact that these three major Asian powers, competitors and often party to border disputes on land or at sea, fought on the same side in the Great War is a two-edged sword. It could have led to coordinated efforts and even have provided, in the case of China and Japan, a counter to other historical episodes, very much alive in popular memory, which act as major obstacles to a lasting peace. However, this does not seem to have been the case. China tends to see the Great War mainly in terms of having capped Japan's successful move from colonialism target to colonial power, with Tokyo not just replacing Berlin in China and the Pacific, but decisively moving towards a paramount position in much of China.</p><table align="left" border="0" style="width: 300px;"><tbody><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle;"><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a class="zoomed_img" href="https://apjjf.org/data/44117.jpg" style="color: #0099cd; display: inline-block; outline: none; position: relative; text-decoration-line: none;" target="_blank"><img alt="" height="150" src="https://apjjf.org/data/44117.jpg" style="border: none;" width="300" /></a></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">The lack of public recognition of the CLC in the UK prompted the birth of the “Ensuring We Remember”, a “National Campaign for a Permanent Memorial to the Chinese Labour Corps of the First World War”</strong></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Efforts at remembrance are also being made in the United Kingdom, where “The National Campaign for a Permanent Memorial to the Chinese Labour Corps of the First World War” was launched in August 2014<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">53</sup></a>, while initiatives in China include a documentary series by CCTV, introduced with a reminder that “An estimated 145,000 Chinese workers stood shoulder to shoulder with British and French soldiers during the conflict from 1914 to 1918. More than 20,000 of them were killed.”<a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">54</sup></a> A challenge as we commemorate the centenary of the Great War is to ensure it includes greater awareness of the contributions of the Chinese Labour Corps.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><em>Alex Calvo is a guest professor at Nagoya University (Japan) and the author of ‘The Second World War in Central Asia: Events, Identity, and Memory’, in S. Akyildiz and R. Carlson eds., Social and cultural Change in Central Asia: The Soviet Legacy (London: Routledge, 2013).</em></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><em>Bao Qiaoni is an ECUPL (East China University of Political Science & Law) law undergraduate and exchange student (NUPACE Program) at Nagoya University (Japan) School of Law.</em></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Recommended citation: <em>Alex Calvo and Bao Qiaoni, "Forgotten voices from the Great War: the Chinese Labor Corps", </em>The Asia-Pacific Journal, <em>Vol. 13, Issue 51, No. 1, December 21, 2015.</em></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">References</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Archival Materials</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">NA National Archives of the United Kingdom, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">SHAT Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre, Service historique de la défense, Château de Vincennes, Avenue de Paris, 94306 Vincennes cedex</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">USNA US National Archives, National Archives and Records Administration, 700</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20408-0001, USA</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Other Primary Sources</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Huimin hetong zhaogonghetong惠民合同招工合同, Article 9.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Yingguo zhaogong hetong (Renjihetong) 英国招工合同(仁记合同)[The contract of British Recruitment], Article 12.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Secondary Sources</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Calvo, Alex. 2014. "Japan and the Century Since World War I." <em>Shingetsu News Agency</em>, 20 June</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">2014, available <a href="http://shingetsunewsagency.com/tokyo/?p=719" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">CCTV. 2009. <em>Chinese Labor Corps during World War I</em>. Website of CCTV, available <a href="http://english.cctv.com/program/newfrontiers/03/10/" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">CCTV, 2009. "Chinese labors corps"华工军团. Available <a href="http://tansuo.cntv.cn/history/huagongjuntuan/videopage/index.shtml" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">CCTV, 2014. "Chinese laborers in the first World War"一战中的华工. Available <a href="http://huashe.oushinet.com/qsnews/20140703/143074.html" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Chen Sanjing陈三井.1986, 34---35. "Huagong yu ouzhan"华工与欧战[Chinese laborers and the first World War]. Taipei: Zhongyang yuanjinshisuo台北:中研院近史所. As seen in Xu Guoqi徐国琦. 2007, 56. "Wenming de jiaorong---diyi cishi jiedazhanqijian dezaifahuagong"文明的交融---第一次世界大战期间的在法华工[Cultural fusion--Chinese laborers in France during the first World War]. Wuzhou chuanbo chubanshe五洲传播出版社.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">De Francis, John. 1984. <em>The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy.</em> Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Deng Xiaojun邓小军. February 15,2009. “Bokaimiwu, tanxun 'yizhanhuagong' delishi---fang meiguo kalamazudaxuejiaoshou Xuguoqi”, 拨开迷雾,探寻‘一战华工’的历史---访美国卡拉玛祖大学教授徐国琦, Zhongguodangan [China Archives].</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Ermito, Daniele and Liu, Lawrence. 2013. “Military 軍事.” In <em>British Chinese Workforce Heritage</em>, available <a href="http://www.britishchineseheritagecentre.org.uk/library/articles/55-military" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Gu Xingqin顾杏卿. 1937, 50. "Ouzhan gongzuo huiyilu"欧战工作回忆录 [Memoirs of the working experience in first World War]. Shanghai shangwu yinshuguan上海商务印书馆. As seen in Xu Guoqi徐国琦. 2007, 56. "Wenming de jiaorong---diyici shijie dazhan qijian dezai fahuagong"文明的交融---第一次世界大战期间的在法华工 [Cultural fusion--Chinese laborers in France during the first World War]. Wuzhou chuanbo chubanshe五洲传播出版社.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Huang Yinghu黄英湖. December, 2011. “Yizhan fuou huagong jiqite dianfenxi”. 一战赴欧华工及其特点分析 [Chinese laborers in World War I and their characteristic analysis]. Bagui qiaokan.八桂侨刊[Overseas Chinese Journal of Bagui].No.4.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">International academic conference of Chinese labors during World War I, held in Weihai威海. September17--19, 2008. Available <a href="http://xuewen.cnki.net/CCND-WHRB200809190012.html" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Jones, Arthur Philip. 1986. <em>Britain’s Search for Chinese Cooperation in the First World War.</em> Hamden: Garland Publishing Inc.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Li Zhancai 李占才. October 3, 2011. “Ouzhan huagong xueleishi”.欧战华工血泪史[The history of Chinese laborers in World War I]. Wenshitiandi.文史天地 [Journal of Literature and History].</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Maillard, Domonique. 2009. “Diyici shijie dazhan qijian zaif aguo dezhong guolaogong” 第一次世界大战期间在法国的中国劳工[Chinese laborers in France during World War I]. Guojiguancha国际观察 [International Review]. No.2.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">National Palace Museum. 2011. <em>A Century of Resilient Tradition: Exhibition of the Republic of China's Diplomatic Archives.</em> Taipei: National Palace Museum.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Peng Zhiguo彭志国. April 1, 2014. “Yizhan huagong, bugai wangji de xuelei zhi ge” 一战华工,不该忘记的血泪之歌 [Chinese laborers in World War I,a song of blood and tears].Youpin优品 [Trading up]. No.4.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Pope, Stephen, Wheale, Elizabeth-Anne, and Robbins, Keith, eds. 1995. <em>Dictionary of the First World War. </em>New York: St.Martin's Press.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Schwartz, Benjamin I. 1983. “Themes in Intellectual History: May Fourth and After.” In John King Fairbank, ed. <em>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 12, Republican China 1912-1949, Part I.</em> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Sheridan, James E. 1983. “The warlord era: politics and militarism under the Peking government , 1916-1928.” In John King Fairbank, ed. <em>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 12, Republican China 1912-1949, Part I.</em> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Song Enrong宋恩荣. 1989, 528. "Yanyangchu quanji"晏阳初全集[Complete works of Y.C. James Yen]. Hunan jiaoyu chubanshe湖南教育出版社 [Hunan education press]. Vol.2. As seen in XuGuoqi徐国琦. 2007, "Wenming de jiaorong---diyici shijie dazhan qijian de zaifa huagong"文明的交融---第一次世界大战期间的在法华工[Cultural fusion--Chinese laborers in France during the first World War]. Wuzhou chuanbo chubanshe五洲传播出版社.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Spence, Jonathan D. 1990. <em>The Search for Modern China.</em> New York: W W Norton and Company.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Stilwell, Joseph Warren. 1948. <em>The Stilwell Papers.</em> New York: William Sloane Associates Inc</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">“The Labour Corps of 1917-1918.” In <em>The Long, Long Trail: the British Army in the Great War</em>, undated, available <a href="http://www.1914-1918.net/labour.htm" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><em>The National Campaign for a Permanent Memorial to the Chinese Labour Corps of the First World War</em>, undated, available <a href="http://ensuringweremember.org.uk/" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Vancouver Public Library. 2012. “Chinese-Canadians in World War I (1914-1918).” In <em>Chinese-Canadian Genealogy</em>, available <a href="http://www.vpl.ca/ccg/WWI.html" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Walker, James W. St. G. “Race and Recruitment in World War I: Enlistment of Visible Minorities in the Canadian Expeditionary Force.” <em>Canadian Historical Review</em> LXX I (1989)</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Wang Jiading王家鼎. December 15, 1997. “Diyici shijie dazhan qijian huagong fufa”第一次世界大战期间华工赴法 [Chinese laborers who went to France during the first World War], Mingguochunqiu民国春秋. No.6.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Wang Jian王建. 2014, 33-36.“Diyici shijie dazhan qijian Shandong diquhuagong zhaomu”</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">第一次世界大战期间山东地区的华工招募 [Recruitment of Chinese laborers in Shandong Area during the First World War]. Anhui daxue shuoshi lunwen [安徽大学硕士论文].</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Xu Guoqi徐国琦. 2007, 56--60. "Wenming de jiaorong---diyici shijie dazhan qijian dezai fahuagong"文明的交融---第一次世界大战期间的在法华工[Cultural fusion--Chinese laborers in France during the first World War]. Wuzhou chuanbo chubanshe五洲传播出版社.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Xu, Guoqi. 2011. <em>Strangers on the Western Front: Chinese Workers in the Great War. </em>Cambridge: Harvard University Press.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Xu, Guoqi. 2011. <em>China and the Great War: China's Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization (Studies in the Social and Cultural History of Modern Warfare).</em> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Yang, Jichen杨机臣. September 8, 2007. "Beiyi wangde 15wan zhongguo yizhanhuagong"被遗忘的中国一战华工[The forgotten Chinese laborers in the first World War]. Zhongguo zuojia中国作家Chinese writers.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Yao Na姚娜. September, 2011.”Yizhan qijian zhongguo zhengfu paiqian huagong fuou dongyinxi” . 一战期间中国政府派遣华工赴欧动因析. [Causes of Chinese government’s sending laborers to Europe during World War I]. Anhui ligong daxue xuebao (shehuikexueban) 安徽理工大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Anhui University of Science and Technology(Social Science)], Vol. 13. No. 3.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;">Yong, C. F. 1987. “The 1911 Revolution and the Kuomintang Movement in Malaya and Singapore, 1912-1925.” In Lee, L. T. ed. <em>The 1911 Revolution: the Chinese in British and Dutch Southeast Asia.</em> Singapore: Heinemann Asia, 1987, 100.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><strong style="margin: 0px;">Notes</strong></p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">1</sup></a> A. Calvo, "Japan and the Century Since World War I", Shingetsu News Agency, 20 June 2014, available <a href="http://shingetsunewsagency.com/tokyo/?p=719" style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">2</sup></a> International academic conference of Chinese laborers during World War I, 2008. CCTV, 2009; CCTV, 2014. Deng Xiaojun 邓小军. February 15, 2009.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">3</sup></a> Yao Na 姚娜. September, 2011.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">4</sup></a> Sheridan 1983, 308.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">5</sup></a> These demands alarmed Western powers bent on keeping the balance of power in China. They also prompted a rift between the Kuomintang, radically opposed to the Yuan Shikai regime, and those organizations stressing unity in the face of Japanese expansionism. For the latter see Yong 1987, 100. Yao Na姚娜. September, 2011.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">6</sup></a> Text of the demands, 7 May 1915 ultimatum, and Chinese reply, reproduced in Michael Duffy, “Primary Documents - '21 Demands' Made by Japan to China, 18 January 1915”, <em>FirstWorldWar.Com</em>, 22 August 2009, available <a href="http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/21demands.htm." style="color: #0099cd; outline: none; text-decoration-line: none;">here</a>.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">7</sup></a> Spence 1990, 289-290. Li Zhancai 李占才. October 3, 2011.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">8</sup></a> Sheridan 1983, 304.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">9</sup></a> Anthony B. Chan,<em> Arming the Chinese: The Western Armaments Trade in Warlord China, 1920-28</em>, (Vancouver-Toronto: UBCPress, 2010), p. 18.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">10</sup></a> Huang Yinghu 黄英湖. December, 2011.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">11</sup></a> The Long, Long Trail. Undated.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">12</sup></a> Xu Guoqi 徐国琦. 2007, 56--60.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">13</sup></a> Xu Guoqi 徐国琦. 2007, 56.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">14</sup></a> Pope et al. 1995.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">15</sup></a> Jones 1986, 108-09.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">16</sup></a> Chen Sanjing 陈三井.1986, 34---35.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">17</sup></a> Gu Xingqin 顾杏卿. 1937, 50.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">18</sup></a> RG165M1444 Roll 2, documents 2055-12, USNA.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">19</sup></a> Ermito and Liu 2013.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">20</sup></a> Huang Yinghu 黄英湖. December, 2011.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">21</sup></a> Yangjichen 杨机臣. September 8, 2007. Domonique Maillard.2009.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">22</sup></a> They had been hired by the French and thus did not belong to the Chinese Labour Corps, which was a British organization.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">23</sup></a> Deng Xiaojun 邓小军. February 15,2009.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">24</sup></a> Li Zhancai 李占才. October 3, 2011.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">25</sup></a> Peng Zhiguo 彭志国.April 1, 2014.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">26</sup></a> CAB 23/8, NA.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">27</sup></a> Song Enrong 宋恩荣. 1989, 528.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">28</sup></a> Ermito and Liu 2013. Li Zhancai 李占才. October 3, 2011.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">29</sup></a> Huiminhetongzhaogonghetong 惠民合同招工合同, Article 9. Yingguozhaogonghetong(Renjihetong) 英国招工合同(仁记合同)[The contract of British Recruitment], Article 12.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">30</sup></a> Xu Guoqi 徐国琦. 2007.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">31</sup></a> Spence 1990, 291-292.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">32</sup></a> Wang Jiading 王家鼎. December15, 1997.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">33</sup></a> Xu 2011 A, 191-192.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">34</sup></a> CAB 24/39, NA.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">35</sup></a> CAB 24/39, NA.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">36</sup></a> Xu 2011 A, 3.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">37</sup></a> Xu Guoqi 徐国琦. 2007.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">38</sup></a> CAB 23/8, NA.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">39</sup></a> CAB 23/8, NA.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">40</sup></a> CAB 24/39, NA.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">41</sup></a> “The U.S. Army insisted that the soldiers at Ramgarh be paid individually and by public roll call. The Chinese constantly agitated that the soldiers' pay be turned over in a lump sum to the commanding officer of the units involved. This was the traditional channel of theft in the Chinese Army, and the U.S. Army refused.” Stilwell 1948, 213.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">42</sup></a> Xu 2011 B, 185.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">43</sup></a> 16N2450, GQG, 6498, SHAT.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">44</sup></a> CAB/23/5, NA.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">45</sup></a> CAB/24/31, NA.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">46</sup></a> Vancouver Public Library 2012. Walker 1989.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">47</sup></a> Nora Wang, “Deng Xiaoping: The Years in France”, <em>The China Quarterly</em>, Volume 92, 1982, pp. 698-705.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">48</sup></a> Paul Bailey, “The Chinese Work—Study Movement in France”, <em>The China Quarterly</em>, Volume 115, 1988, pp. 441-461, p. 442.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">49</sup></a> Schwartz 1983, 407.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">50</sup></a> A copy of the telegram from the delegation reporting on the failure to secure German rights in Shandong is available in National Palace Museum 2011, 134-135. On the other hand, China signed the Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Austria (Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Layle) and the Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary (Treaty of Trianon) National Palace Museum 2011, 136-139.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">51</sup></a> De Francis 1984, 243-245.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">52</sup></a> Deng Xiaojun 邓小军. February 15,2009; Wang Jian 王建. 2014, 33-36.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">53</sup></a> The National Campaign, undated.</p><p style="line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 10px;"><a style="color: #0099cd; outline: none;"><sup style="line-height: 0px;">54</sup></a> CCTV 2009.</p></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-9855837935474253212023-05-25T10:16:00.001+02:002023-05-25T10:16:16.031+02:00李立三 November 18, 1899 – June 22, 1967<p> </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjBDTL2vJP9QB7FwQJME5_NPv2GI8XqMGG81YW6Vow5PcVlqEmOzfQO2SveFTVTfRAAypS8oIpV_nudhoHDUqOk62mDhrFTVevKziTDT77HRu7PMRETmPuuG31DAk7sl5KEn1L20CWYb5ds2ok4WrZ0qdCo_4q3LGAlZh7tlBfeVlpkBr9EHqK0vaJ5tw" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="413" data-original-width="295" height="424" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjBDTL2vJP9QB7FwQJME5_NPv2GI8XqMGG81YW6Vow5PcVlqEmOzfQO2SveFTVTfRAAypS8oIpV_nudhoHDUqOk62mDhrFTVevKziTDT77HRu7PMRETmPuuG31DAk7sl5KEn1L20CWYb5ds2ok4WrZ0qdCo_4q3LGAlZh7tlBfeVlpkBr9EHqK0vaJ5tw=w302-h424" width="302" /></a></div><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhl29IBp6IgZZAiguepYipgf86xik1mMHko_ePtfrSFPNPcfRkTRVkLLRh3vMbHcWJnlSWV1MqmHzMG69LemBeeDXWCclWF459o-cvvwT2Z59gWK5zeDKJyi-AgAOcMuxVi6bDzVMCsO03aUaEDccJW-2Zi9j-eI6jrEWa82hNKX8wzpZFheGWWtBZ_1w" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="395" data-original-width="634" height="289" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhl29IBp6IgZZAiguepYipgf86xik1mMHko_ePtfrSFPNPcfRkTRVkLLRh3vMbHcWJnlSWV1MqmHzMG69LemBeeDXWCclWF459o-cvvwT2Z59gWK5zeDKJyi-AgAOcMuxVi6bDzVMCsO03aUaEDccJW-2Zi9j-eI6jrEWa82hNKX8wzpZFheGWWtBZ_1w=w464-h289" width="464" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgLS0F2rEYKwBqcWk2RNmwlibgsJiHW1kmN4uawCqvXn66jAYrrO8K_j0ZUygWteK1a298lOR7Yx7hsdYteojKdYnA9v4JKxcDtmMJ8yBBW7e2dH7zZT4520Cwfw_kLkj48cClVAvQMjlLMzachzKE_VlBgEgTMO96-Sa8Fe1gkw2_IQMbUxVH1KL4ubg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="566" data-original-width="771" height="339" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgLS0F2rEYKwBqcWk2RNmwlibgsJiHW1kmN4uawCqvXn66jAYrrO8K_j0ZUygWteK1a298lOR7Yx7hsdYteojKdYnA9v4JKxcDtmMJ8yBBW7e2dH7zZT4520Cwfw_kLkj48cClVAvQMjlLMzachzKE_VlBgEgTMO96-Sa8Fe1gkw2_IQMbUxVH1KL4ubg=w462-h339" width="462" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">Li remained an advocate of independence for the trade unions, which brought him into conflict with Mao. He was the Vice Chairman of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions until 1958 and the first president of </span>China Institute of Industrial Relations<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">.</span></p><p><br /></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-39927277301318961952023-05-23T16:10:00.000+02:002023-05-23T16:10:29.578+02:00Though I Am Gone (Director Hu Jie)<h2 class="lg:mb-20 md:mb-20 sm:mb-24" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: white; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: sans-serif; margin: 0px 0px 1.25rem;"><span class="block text-primary-base dark:text-dm-primary-base font-sansUI font-bold lg:text-l md:text-l sm:text-base lg:mb-4 md:mb-6 sm:mb-6" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; color: #e64415; display: block; font-family: SpiegelSansUI, system-ui, BlinkMacSystemFont, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Oxygen, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Fira Sans", "Droid Sans", "Helvetica Neue", sans-serif; font-size: 1.125rem; margin-bottom: 0.25rem;">The Chinese Cultural Revolution</span><span class="font-brandUI font-extrabold lg:text-7xl md:text-5xl sm:text-4xl leading-tight" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSlabCdUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; font-size: 2.75rem; line-height: 1.08;"><span class="align-middle" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; vertical-align: middle;">Remembering Mao's Victims</span></span></h2><div class="RichText RichText--sans leading-loose lg:text-xl md:text-xl sm:text-l lg:mb-32 md:mb-32 sm:mb-24" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: white; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSansUI, system-ui, BlinkMacSystemFont, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Oxygen, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Fira Sans", "Droid Sans", "Helvetica Neue", sans-serif; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 2rem;">As a documentary filmmaker honors the first victim of China's Cultural Revolution, the Communist Party leadership remains silent over this bloody chapter in its history.</div><div class="font-sansUI lg:text-base md:text-base sm:text-s text-shade-dark dark:text-shade-light mb-4" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: white; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; color: #807e7c; font-family: SpiegelSansUI, system-ui, BlinkMacSystemFont, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Oxygen, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Fira Sans", "Droid Sans", "Helvetica Neue", sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.25rem;">Von <a class="text-black dark:text-shade-lightest font-bold border-b border-shade-light hover:border-black dark:hover:border-white" href="https://www.spiegel.de/impressum/autor-bfdffe0c-0001-0003-0000-000000000852" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border-color: rgb(187, 185, 183); border-image: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0px 0px 1px; box-sizing: border-box; color: black; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: inherit;" target="_self" title="Andreas Lorenz">Andreas Lorenz</a></div><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #807e7c; font-family: SpiegelSansUI, system-ui, BlinkMacSystemFont, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Oxygen, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Fira Sans", "Droid Sans", "Helvetica Neue", sans-serif;">15.05.2007, 16.49 Uhr</span> </p><div data-area="text" data-pos="2" data-sara-click-el="body_element" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="RichText lg:w-8/12 md:w-10/12 lg:mx-auto md:mx-auto lg:px-24 md:px-24 sm:px-16 break-words word-wrap" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-left: 1.5rem; padding-right: 1.5rem; width: 655.994px;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">"What is your name?" the Great Helmsman asked a young student as she pinned a Red Guard armband on him in front of the Gate of Heavenly Peace. "Song Binbin," she responded enthusiastically. The name her parents chose meant "properly raised" and "polite," qualities that Mao Zedong found unappealing. "Be violent!" he ordered the girl. A short time later she changed her first name to Yaowu, or "Be Violent."</p></div></div><div class="sm:mb-24 sm:min-h-400" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="sm:sticky" data-stickyfill="" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; top: var(--gujad-sticky-offset, 0px);"></div></div><div data-area="text" data-pos="4" data-sara-click-el="body_element" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="RichText lg:w-8/12 md:w-10/12 lg:mx-auto md:mx-auto lg:px-24 md:px-24 sm:px-16 break-words word-wrap" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-left: 1.5rem; padding-right: 1.5rem; width: 655.994px;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">It was Aug. 18, 1966 and the 72-year-old Chinese leader had called male and female students to assemble on Beijing's Square of Heavenly Peace to launch his Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Hundreds of thousands waved Mao's little red book and cheered the old man.</p></div></div><div class="sm:mb-24 sm:min-h-600" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="sm:sticky" data-stickyfill="" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; top: var(--gujad-sticky-offset, 0px);"><div class="clear-both lg:w-8/12 md:w-10/12 lg:mx-auto md:mx-auto lg:px-24 md:px-24 sm:mx-16" data-advertisement="GujAd outstream_div" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-left: 1.5rem; padding-right: 1.5rem; width: 655.994px;"><div class="gujAd focus-within:outline-focus" data-advertisement="GujAd outstream_div tablet mobile desktop lg md sm" id="outstream_div" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"></div></div></div></div><div data-area="text" data-pos="6" data-sara-click-el="body_element" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="RichText lg:w-8/12 md:w-10/12 lg:mx-auto md:mx-auto lg:px-24 md:px-24 sm:px-16 break-words word-wrap" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-left: 1.5rem; padding-right: 1.5rem; width: 655.994px;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">Mao's call to violence fell on willing ears among many young people. Thirteen days earlier Song, 19 at the time, was presumably present when the female students at her school, which was part of the Beijing Teachers University, killed their teacher, Bian Zhongyun. The girls brutally beat the 50-year-old woman to death using wooden sticks spiked with nails. On the day before the killing, members of the Red Guard had already maltreated the teacher, who was the party leader at the school -- they suddenly viewed her as a "counter-revolutionary revisionist" who they believed had gambled away her life.</p></div></div><div class="sm:mb-24 sm:min-h-400" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="sm:sticky" data-stickyfill="" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; top: var(--gujad-sticky-offset, 0px);"></div></div><div data-area="text" data-pos="8" data-sara-click-el="body_element" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="RichText lg:w-8/12 md:w-10/12 lg:mx-auto md:mx-auto lg:px-24 md:px-24 sm:px-16 break-words word-wrap" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-left: 1.5rem; padding-right: 1.5rem; width: 655.994px;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">Bian went down in history as the first victim of the Cultural Revolution -- the bloody mass movement Mao used to eliminate his enemies within the party. The teacher's murder was followed by the killings of millions of Chinese people. The ten-year campaign destroyed entire families, irreplaceable cultural treasures and centuries-old traditions. In August 1966 alone, about 100 teachers were murdered by their own students in the western section of Beijing.</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;"><span style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: bolder;">'She Believed that She Was Innocent'</span></p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">Independent filmmaker has now traced the grim events at Bian's school in great detail in a new documentary entitled: "Though I Am Gone."</p></div></div><div class="sm:mb-24 sm:min-h-600" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="sm:sticky" data-stickyfill="" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; top: var(--gujad-sticky-offset, 0px);"></div></div><div data-area="text" data-pos="10" data-sara-click-el="body_element" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="RichText lg:w-8/12 md:w-10/12 lg:mx-auto md:mx-auto lg:px-24 md:px-24 sm:px-16 break-words word-wrap" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-left: 1.5rem; padding-right: 1.5rem; width: 655.994px;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">One of the main characters in Hu's film is the murdered woman's husband, 85-year-old Wang Qingyao. "She sacrificed herself as if she were refusing to lose her dignity," the old man explains. Shortly before his wife died, says Wang, he tried to convince her to flee, but she refused. "She believed that she was innocent," says Wang.</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">Most Chinese people will never get to see Hu's historical work. The Chinese Communist Party has continued to keep silent about this chapter of its history. In 2006, the 40th anniversary of the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, it instructed academics, artists and journalists to simply ignore the topic.</p></div></div><div class="sm:mb-24 sm:min-h-400" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="sm:sticky" data-stickyfill="" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; top: var(--gujad-sticky-offset, 0px);"></div></div><div data-area="text" data-pos="12" data-sara-click-el="body_element" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="RichText lg:w-8/12 md:w-10/12 lg:mx-auto md:mx-auto lg:px-24 md:px-24 sm:px-16 break-words word-wrap" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-left: 1.5rem; padding-right: 1.5rem; width: 655.994px;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">This was probably the reason the authorities recently cancelled the Multiculture Visual Festival in the southern province of Yunnan, an event where director Hu had planned to screen his documentary. Despite the cancellation, the film is available on YouTube, where it is cut into 10 segments -- although late last week the film was banned in China. Hu, a military painter by trade, is used to these kinds of difficulties. When he filmed an earlier documentary about another Mao victim ("In Search of the Soul of Lin Zhao"), he lost his job with Xinhua, the official Chinese news agency.</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">But what is a people without memory? Hu asks. "If politicians deny their own history, we simple Chinese should remember. We must continue to make many films about the Cultural Revolution and its massacres."</p></div></div><div class="sm:mb-24 sm:min-h-400" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="sm:sticky" data-stickyfill="" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; top: var(--gujad-sticky-offset, 0px);"></div></div><div data-area="text" data-pos="14" data-sara-click-el="body_element" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;"><div class="RichText RichText--lastPmb0 RichText--lastInline lg:w-8/12 md:w-10/12 lg:mx-auto md:mx-auto lg:px-24 md:px-24 sm:px-16 break-words word-wrap" style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; overflow-wrap: break-word; padding-left: 1.5rem; padding-right: 1.5rem; width: 655.994px;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: white; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">One of the reasons the Communist Party reacted with such sensitivity to his most recent work is that many of the former members of the Red Guard who attended Bian's middle school were members of the families of high-ranking officials who are still revered today. "Some were daughters, nieces or granddaughters of members of the Politburo," says Wang, the widower featured in the film. "It was essentially a royal school." Yaowu, for example, was the daughter of a senior Communist Party official. The students also included Deng Rong, daughter of the later Communist Party patriarch and economic reformer Deng Xiaoping, as well as Liu Tingting, a daughter of former President Liu Shaoqi.</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: white; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">The families of most members of the Red Guard later became victims of the Cultural Revolution themselves. Radical comrades drove Deng out of office, and his song Pufang was forced to jump from a window and has been paraplegic ever since. Liu died a miserable death in prison in 1969.</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: white; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">Their daughters, former Red Guard members Deng and Liu, are businesswomen today, while Song Binbin, a.k.a. Yaowu, now works as an environmental researcher in Boston. In a US documentary about the Cultural Revolution, she denied any involvement in the murder of her teacher. "I was always opposed to violence," she said, adding that the <i style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box;">People's Daily</i>, the Communist Party paper, had forced the name Yaowu upon her.</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: white; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">The Cultural Revolution has never been dealt with officially, nor has there been any debate over culpability and collaboration. With the exception of the "Gang of Four," which included Mao's widow, Jiang Qing, no high-ranking politicians were ever put on trial.</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: white; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, "Lucida Bright", Lucidabright, "Lucida Serif", Lucida, "DejaVu Serif", "Bitstream Vera Serif", "Liberation Serif", Georgia, serif; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px 0px 1.5rem;">Bian's husband has never quite got over his wife's murder. He has even saved her bloody clothing and shows them in the film, but he is likely to be left alone with his memories. The authorities have turned down his request to have a memorial plaque installed in the schoolyard.</p><div><span style="font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, Lucida Bright, Lucidabright, Lucida Serif, Lucida, DejaVu Serif, Bitstream Vera Serif, Liberation Serif, Georgia, serif;">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eBfGc3-InrA</span></div><span style="font-family: SpiegelSerifUI, Constantia, Lucida Bright, Lucidabright, Lucida Serif, Lucida, DejaVu Serif, Bitstream Vera Serif, Liberation Serif, Georgia, serif;"><span style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border-image: initial; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 #0000; --tw-shadow: 0 0 #0000; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: white; border: 0px solid rgb(221, 219, 217); box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; font-size: 1.25rem; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0px;"></p></span></span></div></div><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-31294081062800127282023-05-16T20:17:00.000+02:002023-05-16T20:17:52.770+02:00China - 2500 Jahre Entdeckungsreise vom Altertum bis ins 20. Jahrhundert<p>China - 2500 Jahre Entdeckungsreise vom Altertum bis ins 20. Jahrhundert
Copyright: Frederking &
Thaler Verlag
Das sagenhafte Reich der Mitte zog seit der Antike viele Reisende magisch an. Griechische
Kaufleute kamen wegen der berühmten Seide, irische Mönche drangen bis in die Weiten der Mongolei
vor, portugiesische Seefahrer schufen die ersten westlichen Handelsniederlassungen und Entdecker
wie Sven Hedin begeistern bis heute ihre Leser mit abenteuerlichen Berichten von einer
faszinierenden Kultur. Illustriert ausschließlich durch zeitgenössische Stiche, Zeichnungen und Malerei
erzählt dieser opulente Band die wechselvolle und spannende Geschichte von 2500 Jahren
Begegnung zwischen Ost und West.
2500 Jahre Begegnung mit dem Reich der Mitte: Pilger, Kaufleute, Missionare, Eroberer und Diplomaten - sie alle zogen
aus, das ferne Land im Osten zu erkunden, um das sich bis heute viele Legenden ranken. Dennoch blieb China dem
Abendland auch in den drei Jahrhunderten fremd, die auf die ersten Handelskontakte der Portugiesen im 16.
Jahrhundert folgten. Doch die Neugierde der westlichen Welt konnte besonders durch die Missionare des
Jesuitenordens geweckt werden, chinesisches Porzellan und Malerei fanden viele Bewunderer, und China wurde an den
europäischen Höfen salonfähig. Im 19. Jahrhundert bedingten Industrielle Revolution und die politischen Interessen der
Großmächte eine neue Form der Begegnung zwischen West und Ost. Die Briten zwangen das Reich der Mitte, seine Häfen
für den Handel und den Opiumimport zu öffnen. 1860 hatten die Europäer faktisch die Macht in China übernommen und
blieben dort bis zum Fall der Mandschu-Dynastie zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts und dem Ende des Himmlischen
Kaiserreiches.
Der vorliegende Band beruht auf zahlreichen, bislang unveröffentlichten historischen Dokumenten und faszinierenden
Bildern unterschiedlicher Epochen. Er beschreibt die schwierige Kontaktaufnahme Europas mit China von den ersten
vorsichtigen Handelsverbindungen in der Antike über das Zeitalter des Kolonialismus bis hin zum Fall des Reiches und
den Anfangen der maoistischen Revolution in China. Das Buch zollt der Geschichte Tribut, zugleich und vor allem aber
auch der Kunst und Kreativität der Chinesen, deren einzigartige Kultur und unverwechselbarer Stil in vielen der hier
abgebildeten Meisterwerke zutage tritt.
Gianni Guadalupi
China
336 Seiten / 600 Farbfotos
25,5 x 35,5 cm
ISBN 3-89405-475-1</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-71609424815993455672023-05-12T21:52:00.001+02:002023-05-12T21:52:34.892+02:00Zheng Wang, Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations<p>As China emerges as a great power, much attention has been devoted to understanding
China’s present and prospective foreign affairs. With the rise of nationalism in China,
policymakers have begun to worry about whether the Chinese leadership will adopt a
more assertive nationalistic posture in foreign affairs. Zheng Wang uses recollections
and representations of past historical events shared by the Chinese to emphasize that the
understanding of the past impacts the present and the future. This book is less about
Bwhat actually happened^ in history, but about Bwhat the Chinese remember and what
they choose to forget^ in a recounting of the country’s past. It seeks to explain China’s
political transition and foreign policy behavior in the post-Tiananmen era through the
lens of historical memory. This study makes a valuable contribution to examining the
function of historical memory and consciousness in Chinese politics and foreign
relations.
In this book, historical memory is identified as a powerful force in the formation of a
country’s national identity and worldview. National identity is viewed as a key determinant for national interests, which in turn are considered as a driving force behind
foreign policy and state action. As indicated in the title, this book primarily focuses on
the Chinese people’s collective historical memory about the so-called Bainian guochi
(century of national humiliation) beginning with the First Opium War (1839–1842)
through the end of the Sino-Japanese War in 1945. The Chinese people remember this
period as a time when their country was attacked and bullied by foreign powers. Wang
examines how the Chinese historical memory about the country’s past humiliation,
combined with the Communist leaders’ political use of the past to reshape national identity, influenced China’s political transformation and international behavior. To
conduct this research, the author applies an in-depth qualitative and historical approach,
using evidence gathered from historical textbooks, official documents, memoirs, and
interviews.
Based on the existing literature on historical memory and theories of identity and
beliefs, the first chapter of the book develops two analytical frameworks that help to
categorize and measure the effects of historical memory. Adopting the Harvard Identity
Project model and social identity theory, the first analytical framework provides a
method to measure the content of historical memory as a collective identity. The second
one provides a set of questions categorizing causal pathways in which collective
identity serves to influence political actions. Based on the analytical frameworks, the
next five chapters explore the role of historical memory in the construction of national
identity and nation building, with each chapter dealing with a different aspect of
historical memory issues. Starting with an overview of China’s century of national
humiliation in Chapter 2, the following chapters examine how the discourse of China’s
humiliating modern history has been revised and institutionalized in the Chinese
Communist Party’s efforts to construct the rules and norms of the ruling party. In
particular, they provide a detailed account of how the Chinese government has used the
content of historical memory to conduct ideological education as a central component
of its patriotic education campaign that started in 1991. Wang argues that the state-led
campaign of patriotic education contributed to the rise of nationalism in China which
helped the Communist government to regain its legitimacy in the post-Tiananmen era.
In Chapter 6, the author uses the historical memory variable to explain Chinese
behavior during the Olympic Games and the Sichuan earthquake relief effort in
2008. Chapter 7 and 8 present case studies examining the impact of China’s institutionalized historical consciousness on its foreign relations, especially in relations with
the United States and Japan. Based on these case studies, the author claims that
historical memory often serves as a major driving force leading to international conflict,
especially when the confrontation is perceived by the Chinese as an assault on the
country’s national dignity (or face).
Ideational factors including historical memory have been underestimated in the
study of politics and international relations due to the difficulties in incorporating
cognitive variables into empirical research. This book makes a significant contribution
to providing researchers with analytical frameworks and methodological approaches
for a systemic examination concerning the use of historical memory as a variable to
explain political action. Therefore, I believe a wide range of readers with interests in
China’s historical memory, national identity, nationalism and foreign relations will gain
useful insights from this intriguing book </p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p>Su-Jeong Kang</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-60994002713429499852023-05-12T21:04:00.000+02:002023-05-12T21:04:11.665+02:00Zheng Wang, Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations<p> Scholars studying China are quite familiar with themes like national humiliation,
nationalism as a new source of regime legitimacy vis-à-vis communism, and
China’s anti-US and anti-Japan polemic. Zheng Wang’s book Never Forget
National Humiliation captures the interrelated nature of these themes in a skilful
manner and is a valuable addition to the study of Chinese nationalism.
Wang analyses the commonly shared thinking of the Chinese about their place in
the world and their view of how the world sees them (p. xii). His analysis attempts to
explain the ultimate aim and implications of China’s rise. He underscores that China’s
‘historical consciousness’ revolves around ‘myth’ and ‘trauma’—the dominant features of China’s contemporary national thinking shaping its national identity. The
‘historical consciousness’ defines its national interests and tunes its motivations
behind its international interactions, and is necessary to understand China’s present
foreign policy. Thus, the author discusses two variables in this context: historical
consciousness and national identity in China’s contemporary foreign policy.
The central question of the book is how the Chinese, particularly the youth, have
come to be ranked ‘among the most patriotic’ and ‘establishment supporting’, from
the earlier Mao’s Red Guards and later ‘the anti-dictatorship Tiananmen Generation’
of the 1980s (pp. 1–2). Answering the question, the book discusses the communist
regime’s cultivation of a new national identity from 1991 onwards, based on ethnic
patriotism. This would be done by constructing a new historical consciousness,
through government interventions, that strengthens the Chinese Communist Party
(CCP)’s legitimacy. The book describes the Chinese government’s selective but
systematic usage of memories to fulfil its legitimacy requirements and create the
kind of nation it wants (pp. 6–7).
Wang points out that the Chosenness-Myths-Trauma (CMT) complex, which the
regime has carefully created over the past two decades, constitutes China’s contemporary mainstream historical consciousness. The CMT contains belief in the ancient
glory of China—belief in divine chosenness, cultural superiority and a civilisation
boundless (best expressed in the concept of 天下 Tianxia, ‘the realm under heaven’)
(pp. 42–43)—and memories of China’s defeat at the hands of foreign powers after the
first Opium War (1839–42) until 1945, when the Japanese withdrew from China after
a prolonged Sino-Japanese war. In the CMT complex, China’s earlier defeats are
ignored as the invaders at that time, the barbarians, became civilised by assimilating
with the Chinese culture. The invaders, the devils, after the first Opium War, knockeddown Tianxia. Similarly, other tragedies—those pertaining to the civil war or the
catastrophic famine in the late 1950s or the political tragedy of the Cultural
Revolution—are ignored by the CCP. Thus, only the selective simulation of the
defeats and consequent unequal treaties during the said period make up the traumas
in CMT. While the remembrance of the ancient mythical or historical glories boosts
Chinese society’s self-esteem, the selective traumas seek to ‘mourn and/or reverse’
national humiliation and contribute to forming a strong national identity (p. 68).
Wang describes the contemporary patriotic surge in China’s textbooks and entertainment industry as the post-Tiananmen development. He reminds us that in spite of
occasional sharing of political slogans in their joint fight against the warlords and the
Japanese invasion, the CCP generally used class-oriented language describing China’s
humiliation as part of a global trend, unlike its narrative today. Conversely, the
Kuomintang (KMT) spoke essentially a Confucian nationalist language. Later, the
communists produced a ‘victor discourse’ and the narrative of history full of socialist
idioms after 1949 in which, as Wang underscores, ethnic patriotism was absent (pp.
82–91). The class distinction defined the political identity of the People’s Republic of
China (PRC) as representing only the workers and peasants, discarding ethnicity
during the Maoist era. Ethnic patriotism found no sympathy in Mao’s internationalism
and ‘progressive’ China. For them, the Chinese civil war and the Japanese and other
foreign aggressions were class wars. Moreover, the communists’ ‘victor’ sense after
1949 and their claim of liberating China from the hands of oppressors—their source
of legitimacy—had no place for stories on national humiliation. Besides, the CCP was
not in a position to ratchet up their claims about the victory over the Japanese beyond
a certain point, as the hard fact was that it was the KMT, whom the communists
shunned, that essentially fought the war against the Japanese (pp. 86–88).
Consequently, the National Library of China had ‘no books on the subject of “national
humiliation” published in China between 1947–90’. The Maoist era ‘consciously
suppressed’ the ‘historiography of the Nanjing Massacre’ (p. 86).
The 1989 Tiananmen episode symbolised the culmination of the ideological crisis
of the official socialist ideology losing sync with the changing economic orientation
of China. The crisis had been building up since the late 1970s. Deng Xioping
accepted that ‘[t]he biggest mistake for the CCP in the 1980s was that the party did
not focus enough attention on ideological education … we did not tell them about
what China was like in the old days and what kind of a country it was to become’
(p. 96). China needed a new ideology. In the light of Deng’s guiding directive, Jiang
Zemin undertook a massive project to rewrite the textbooks of history, to create a new
historical narrative and to introduce a new curriculum in order to overhaul China’s
political and ideological education (pp. 100–104). Wang argues that Jiang, who is
mainly known for his successes on the economic and foreign policy fronts, implemented a silent revolution in the educational arena, which is his most enduring legacy
(p. 136). Jiang transformed Mao’s ‘victor’ China into ‘the victim’ China. The old
narrative of the Sino-Japanese war being a class war was changed to an international
ethnic conflict with ‘considerable credit to the KMT’s military resistance’ (p. 102).
Now the claim of legitimacy for the CCP is that it ended the era of national
humiliation and unequal treaty, not the liberation.
The Chinese state has employed various instruments such as rewriting the textbooks, making history a compulsory subject for students in various ways, subsidising
and promoting movies and television serials based on war themes and building
monuments for war heroes to sell its version of history. Evoking memories of the Sino-Japanese war by the leaders has become fashionable. According to Wang, the
aim of all this is to ‘rejuvenate China’, which for many Chinese means reclaiming
ancient glory, not aspiring to anything new. This massive exercise has not only
established nationalism as a new source of legitimacy but has redefined the role of
the CCP too. Jiang’s ‘Three Represents’ principle (‘advanced productive forces,
advanced Chinese culture and the fundamental interests of the majority’) signifies
the end of the class character of the Chinese state for many. The author points out that
the success of the project was witnessed during the Beijing Olympics in 2008 when
the patriotic demonstrations by the overseas Chinese, particularly by students abroad,
overwhelmed and outperformed pro-Tibet and other pro-human rights demonstrations
in the backdrop of the Olympic Torch relay to Beijing.
Wang identified the 1995–96 Taiwan Strait Crisis, the 1999 NATO bombing of the
Chinese Embassy in Yugoslavia and the EP-3 incident in 2001 as the three major
incidents after the end of the Cold War in which China’s reaction had direct links with
the nationalism project it had undertaken in the 1990s. He argues that in view of the
US’s conciliatory approach, China’s reaction was disproportionate and not normal
during these episodes. He is of the view that China exploited these incidents to
‘activate’ the memories of past injustice by foreigners. His core argument is that
‘emergency (accident or unexpected events) incidents that cause Chinese suffering
and a dispute with a country that historically has had troubles with China’ provide an
opportunity to ‘activate Chinese historical memory’ (p. 200). China’s insistence on
seeking apology—for example in the case of the EP-3 incident from the US and from
Japan about the atrocities committed on the Chinese during its invasion of China and
about the Japanese history textbooks—serves its victim righteousness and satisfies the
moral superiority as part of its nationalism project. Wang cautions that the kind of
anti-foreign nationalist path China has chosen to tread is quite dangerous. It does help
the regime to keep its authority legitimate and stable by avoiding internal political
animosity, but it can also create complications in policy making. Sometimes, mass
hysteria about past injustices may not recognise its limits and may build a momentum
of its own, beyond CCP control (p. 191).
In conclusion, the book is illuminating, engrossing and highly recommendable. It
is a high-quality scholarly work that very lucidly unravels many entwined themes and
does full justice to the subject it discusses.</p><p>Prashant Kumar Singh</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-52678292245284711522023-05-12T20:38:00.000+02:002023-05-12T20:38:18.056+02:00Zheng Wang, Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations.<p> Why did the Chinese government escalate some international crises, such as the 1999
US bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, and not others, like the 1998 attacks
on ethnic Chinese in Indonesia? Why did Chinese youth go from standing in front of
tanks in 1989 to becoming the country’s staunchest patriots defending the 2008
Olympic flame in capital cities around the world? Zheng Wang’s book, Never Forget
National Humiliation, looks at a particular dimension of China’s socio-political culturehistorical memory, to solve a number of puzzles about the country’s international and
domestic politics that the mainstream, realist tradition of International Relations
theory has a hard time explaining. Combining insights from the liberal and constructivist traditions, Wang examines Chinese foreign and domestic policies since Jiang
Zemin’s ‘patriotic turn’ in the 1990s. Employing historical memory as the main
explanatory variable, Wang’s analysis identifies the causal relationship between
China’s official historical narrative, the country’s collective identity construction and
its foreign policy.
The stated aim of the book is to delineate with precision the extent to which
ideational factors bring about conflict behaviours. Wang’s original theoretical framework directly links identity to political outcomes, locating three causal pathways in
which ideational factors influence policy behaviour: as road maps, as focal points and
as institutions. Although this framework heavily draws on insights that most constructivist and Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA) approaches have already incorporated,
namely how cognitive constraints and biases can affect foreign policy-makers, Wang
distinguishes himself by giving pride of place to memory. Examining the impact of
historical memory and identity on cognition allows him to make sense of some otherwise puzzling instances of Chinese foreign behaviour like the ones mentioned above.
Wang’s analysis of how China chooses to remember its past has great relevance for
the present. It sheds light on topical questions about the political implications of
national historiography, and the role that history education plays in a country’s domestic and foreign relations. Wang offers a map of the meanderings of Chinese historical
memory, illustrating the Chinese Communist Party’s ideological evolution from communism to nationalism over the course of the last three decades. This transformation is
set against a broader background of the change in China’s self-image during its millenary history.</p><p>The book details China’s Patriotic Education Campaign since the early 1990s and
through to its latest developments in the twenty-first century, focusing on the content
and objectives of the history curriculum. Wang sees historical memory both as a trigger
of the country’s nationalistic education and as its product, placing it at the heart of
China’s search for identity as a nation-state. His approach to the study of nationalism
has both advantages and disadvantages. On the positive side, Wang accounts for
several of the dimensions of Chinese nationalism and avoids the classic top-down
bottom-up dichotomy, by describing it not only instrumentally as a state-led ideology
or political technique but also as a sentiment pervading civil society and originating
from shared memories. Regrettably, the discussion occasionally suffers from a rather
muddled understanding of the main terms used in nationalism studies. This severely
undermines Wang’s attempt to redefine Chinese nationalism in the last chapter. Nonetheless, overall the discussion remains pertinent, empirically accurate and illuminating.
The book benefits from research in primary sources ranging from educational texts
and official documents to cultural and popular material, introducing new material to
the English-speaking academic debate. Cases are cogently argued and empirically
substantiated. An instance of this is the discussion of the change in the description of
well-known historical figures reflecting an official change in historical perspectives:
General Zuo Zongtang of the Qing dynasty went from being a peasant-suppressing
devil in the old textbooks to being a foreign-defeating hero in the new ones.
Never Forget National Humiliation appeals to a broad readership, ranging from
scholars and students of international relations, nationalism and history, to policymakers and anyone interested in the internal workings of China’s worldview. Accessible to non-specialists thanks to its clarity, Wang’s book does at the same time provide
a rigorous contribution to the theoretical debate about the role of national identity in
shaping political outcomes.
Finally, the book takes on an advocacy position in the controversial debate of
textbook writing in East Asia. Describing China’s ‘deep culture’ of national humiliation as articulated in a narrative of chosen myths and traumas, Wang’s book explores
the genesis of a self-victimising historical narrative. Far from endorsing it, the book
promotes changes in the intellectual discourse on history so that the power of collective
memory can foster reconciliation and understanding between China and other countries, especially Japan and the US, rather than conflict. This element of idealism rests on
Wang’s solid background in conflict resolution, which lends credence to the book’s
proposed ways to deflate the nationalistic animosities currently destabilising China, its
region and the world.</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-83303353600643899882023-05-12T20:18:00.000+02:002023-05-12T20:18:19.554+02:00Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations, by Zheng Wang<p> Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics
and Foreign Relations, by Zheng Wang</p><p> It focuses on the teaching of modern history in schools, which emphasizes China as the victim of
foreign imperialist bullying during the so-called “one hundred years of humiliation” from the Opium War (1839–42) to the Communist victory in 1949. The
primary aim of this manipulated historical consciousness is to glorify the Chinese Communists, who drove out the imperialists, but whose image was badly
damaged by their crackdown on student protests on 4 June 1989. The secondary
aim is to promote anti-Western nationalism, hoping to consolidate national identity and justify one-Party rule. Zheng Wang finds that this manipulated historical consciousness now directs political discourse at home and foreign policy
abroad, laying the foundations for China’s rise.</p><p>The book puts its case in nine chapters. The first reviews the existing studies on
the concepts of historical memory, identity and politics. In Chapter 2, “Chosen
Glory, Chosen Trauma”, the Opium War heralds the Century of Humiliation,
while Chapter 3 traces China’s mighty fall from its self-perceived status as the
Centre of the World to its resurgence during the Mao era. The fourth chapter
describes China’s need to resort to a patriotic education campaign to hold the
nation together; Chapter 5 discusses the attempt to salvage a Communist Party
badly tarnished by the events in Tiananmen Square on 4 June 1989. Chapter 6
dwells on the use of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake as a new trauma and the Beijing
Olympics as a new glory to bind the nation together. Chapter 7 turns to the utilization of national[ist] history in China’s relations with foreign countries; Chapter 8 discusses relations with Japan; and Chapter 9 concludes with an overview
of the use of nationalism, based on selected memory, to foster the so-called
China’s Rise.
Such a narrative raises more questions than it can provide answers. With regard
to foreign policy, the manipulation of historical memory to produce a mentality
of victimhood does indeed distract from problems at hand, but can equally generate misunderstandings between China and other nations, with unpredictable
consequences. Wang believes that the 1989 protests were about resisting CCP
dictatorship, but concludes that manipulation of historical consciousness has
succeeded in consolidating one-Party rule, and in fact has intensified Party dictatorship! The students had another major complaint—official corruption—and
this has gone from bad to worse, as even the CCP leaders acknowledge. In short,
the CCP has only suppressed the symptoms, but not cured the illness.
My own research reveals a different dimension to this all-out attempt to suppress the symptoms, and that is that it has encouraged people, first, to further
their own interests, and second, not to care about the interests of others (and
by implication public interest, so exacerbating problems such as rampant corruption and to many episodes of gross, indeed sometimes grotesque, selfishness
recounted by the Chinese media in recent years). If the object of manipulating
historical memory has been, as Wang suggests, to build social cohesion, this effort seems to have been remarkably unsuccessful.
Indeed, social cohesion and stability are jeopardized by the Chinese authorities’ use of this same manipulated historical consciousness as leverage in both
their domestic politics and foreign relations. Once started, however, mass reactions such as street protests often take their own course. In short, the Chinese
authorities are sitting on a volcano of their own making.
So, where is China going? This is what the powers-that-be care about the
least—most of them have sent their children to live overseas, pockets bulging
with money. How long that money will last, in the hands of these spoilt princelings, is something that the leaders have not considered. The measures pursued to
date in the name of stability may ultimately prove massively counter-productive.</p><p>Spelt out in this way, this review is bound to paint a far less rosy picture of the
CCP’s future than does the book itself.
John Y. Wong
University of Sydney</p><p><br /></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-22837047390476685112023-05-10T13:19:00.002+02:002023-05-10T13:19:53.583+02:00陳雲 13 June 1905 – 10 April 1995<p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjnBTw7KZaPllqPbF6XzMmoRn_pSCrMYjtghd4unvSqBVKtO73fS252kR_q-U6yFgY2OTwPNzushbBm8ltRj6w8OgRXug-OHAAa84Fx4hM_wPICnYbVw95TvafB7EklXqwkZTQZlYSjjNB79IP2QnRcJHhH4Wp2WuozYqE9w3-J4Ek3y_NOepJLWb5rHg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="402" data-original-width="323" height="326" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjnBTw7KZaPllqPbF6XzMmoRn_pSCrMYjtghd4unvSqBVKtO73fS252kR_q-U6yFgY2OTwPNzushbBm8ltRj6w8OgRXug-OHAAa84Fx4hM_wPICnYbVw95TvafB7EklXqwkZTQZlYSjjNB79IP2QnRcJHhH4Wp2WuozYqE9w3-J4Ek3y_NOepJLWb5rHg=w262-h326" width="262" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;"><br /></span></p><p style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px; margin: 0.5em 0px;"><span style="color: #202122;">In May 1949, Chen Yun was named head of the new national Central Finance and Economic Commission. In early 1952, Zhou Enlai led a team to draft the first Five-Year Plan which included Chen, </span><span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Bo Yibo</span></span>, <span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Li Fuchun</span></span><span style="color: #202122;"> and General Nie Rongzhen. Zhou, Chen and Li presented the draft to Soviet experts in Moscow, who rejected it. In early 1953, Gao Gang and the State Planning Commission began work on what would eventually become the final version. After Gao's fall, Chen Yun, Bo Yibo, Li Fuchuan and (later) Li Xiannian would manage the Chinese economy for the next 30+ years.</span></p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Chen Yun was elected Party Vice Chairman in 1956.</p><p style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px; margin: 0.5em 0px;">Throughout the 1950s, Chen was the official who did the most to moderate Mao's radical economic reforms. Looking back, Chen would later believe that it was the Chairman's errors that most kept China from achieving its Five-Year Plans</p><p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;">Had Mao died in 1956, his achievements would have been immortal. Had he died in 1966, he would still have been a great man but flawed. But he died in 1976. Alas, what can one say?</span></p><p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: ivory; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 21.56px;"><br /></span></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-51941641632538931732023-05-02T13:59:00.005+02:002023-05-02T13:59:46.888+02:00Idiomuri chinezesti Chinese idioms<p> </p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">1.一丝不苟 (Yīsībùgǒu)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">The meaning of this idiomatic expression is to be meticulous and to attend to every detail. This phrase is particularly useful when you want to paint the character in your composition as a highly detailed oriented person. It is a sweet and concise way to describe such a person. A literal translation is: “<span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-weight: 700;">一丝</span>” referring to a little bit and “<span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-weight: 700;">不苟”</span><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-weight: 700;"> </span>referring to not careless at all. Thus, explaining its meaning.<br style="box-sizing: inherit;" /></p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">2. 一窍不通 (Yīqiàobùtōng)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiom essentially means that a person is completely unaware and ignorant about something. 一窍不通 (yīqiàobùtōng) literal meaning is “passing not even one hole” (as “一窍” translates to one hole/opening and “不通” is blocked/impassable).</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">It is also somewhat like the English expression of “It’s Greek to me”. Students can use this phrase in their Chinese composition when they want to describe characters not understanding how to use computers or just being unable to make any sense of the current situation.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">3.哪壶不开提哪壶 (Nǎ Hú Bù Kāi Tí Nǎ Hú)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiomatic expression is an uncommon one and probably a good one to impress the examiner. This idiom means to touch a soft spot in someone. It can be used when someone said or did something which caused others to suddenly remember an unfortunate past or something unpleasant. It’s literal translation to <span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-weight: 700;">English</span> is “to pick a kettle that is not boiling”.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">4.民以食为天 (Mín Yǐ Shí Wéi Tiān)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This is also yet another idiomatic expression that does not follow the typical 4 characters idiom. This is a great and refreshing idiom for students to use in their composition relating to food, health and fitness! Since Singapore is a food haven, it is highly appropriate to use it to discuss the importance of food in this little red dot. The literal translation of this idiomatic expression is that people view food as their heaven, this highlighting that people place a high priority on food.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">5.鹤立鸡群 (Hèlìjīqún)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This Chinese idiomatic expression suggests that the person which we are referring to is outstanding and excels in whatever he/she is doing. It is useful for students as they can use this idiom to describe a person who is talented in a certain skill. The literal meaning of this meaning in English is translated to this “A crane standing in a flock of chicken”, thus implying that the person is a high achiever and stands out from the rest.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">6. 豁然开朗 (Huò Rán Kāi Lǎng)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiom is used to describe the eureka moment that you have. It means that the person has gained enlightenment to a difficult problem or situation, and he/she suddenly saw the light. It is really helpful when you want to express that the character suddenly thought of a great brilliant idea, this idiom is as commonly used by students, so utilising this in essay would impress your examiner!</p><figure class="wp-block-image" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 28px; margin: 1em 40px;"><img alt="" decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/eKSwW53-HIpLo5hndq2q58ayEFquqwnZyCJsQv4qJSDlEbQCoAEfjVJHOb1uSFwHvfgtBsPNylqG73q2a3Jf00E6hBF03V_2PuFWZRha5aEAT3iEe27XNEemLzlZEb_dIzYPMHmzDyDTMIX_xff1cDwgRuUBvscOFqHh3teYrJ9bKdhANt5fTPu_zniSgXsKvB2grQ" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: bottom;" /><figcaption style="box-sizing: inherit; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 0.5em;"></figcaption></figure><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">7. 爱不释手 (Àibùshìshǒu)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This is a rather common idiom which students use, so it is best to know it! This means to love something so much that you are unwilling to let go of it. That is the literal translated meaning as “释手” essentially means to let go, hence the idiom when translated means unwilling to part with the object. This idiom can be used when you would like to describe a child in the toy store being unwilling to put down the toy he saw.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">8. 不可兼得 (Bù Kě Jiān Dé)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiom means that one cannot get both things at the same time, or rather you cannot have the best of both worlds. It came from a longer <span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-weight: 700;">Chinese idiom</span> “鱼与熊掌不可兼得”, meaning, you are not able to always get everything you want.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">9.塞翁失马 (Sàiwēngshīmǎ)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This<span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-weight: 700;"> Chinese idiom</span> was derived from the ancient Chinese story of when an old man who lost his horse and yet it brought about good things when the horse came back with another fine horse, giving them good fortune. However, this idiom also depicts that happiness may also bring about misfortune, thus it is a dual meaning proverb.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">Essentially, it implies that setbacks are oftentimes a blessing in disguise and not all happiness is long lasting, as it can slowly turn to misfortune. Therefore, it is useful for students to use this to depict events where a misfortune actually has a silver lining!</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">10. 心血来潮 (Xīn Xuè Lái Cháo)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiom is suitable to be used in the beginning of the sentence to signal an impulse or doing certain things on a whim. This phrase is directly translated to “heart blood which comes suddenly” in English. It is used to describe the feeling of desiring to do something on an impulse. Therefore, it is very suitable for students to use this expression to describe somebody’s actions that were prompted by an impulse and the spur of a moment.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">11.全力以赴 (Quán Lì Yǐ Fù)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiom literally translates into giving it your all. It is a highly versatile idiom that can be used in writing or in oral conversations. Possessing a positive connotation which signals a person’s determination to achieve a goal, it is used to describe the actions during the process and not those that have already been completed.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">12.不可思议 (Bù Kě Sī Yì)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">Breaking down this <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-character_idiom#:~:text=Four%2Dcharacter%20idiom%20may%20refer,added%20or%20subdivided%20at%20will." rel="nofollow" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #ff5722; outline: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition-duration: 0.3s;">4 character idiom</a>, we will have “不可” which means cannot and “思议” which means imagine or believe. Hence, this phrase means that something (can be a place, thing or an event) is unbelievable and unimaginable. It can have both positive and negative connotations to indicate that something is noteworthy or marvellous in an unexpected way.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">13.理所当然(Lǐ Suǒ Dāng Rán)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">The meaning of this phrase is that “it goes without saying”. It is used to refer to the inevitability of things and it is reasonable should something happen. It is an excellent connector and phrase to start the sentence, replacing the mediocre “当然”.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">14. 纸上谈兵(Zhǐshàngtánbīng)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">The literal meaning of this idiom means to talk about the military on paper, which is deemed useless and impractical unless one combines experience and practical skills with it.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiomatic phrase originated from a story narrating how the general <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhao_Kuo" rel="nofollow" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: inherit; color: #ff5722; outline: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition-duration: 0.3s;">Zhao Kuo</a> of Zhao Dynasty only studied military strategies and tactics on paper but never practiced it on a battlefield. As such, the lack of practical exercises led to his defeat and failure during the Campaign of Changping.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">15. 自相矛盾 (Zìxiāngmáodùn)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiom explains the meaning of contradicting oneself. “自相” means self and “矛盾” means to contradict. This idiom came about when a man boasted that the spear could penetrate anything, yet he also sold a shield which he claimed that no spear could pierce through it, thus an obvious contradiction. As such, this idiom is suitable for describing paradoxical situations or people who have contradictory opinions.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">16.有朋自远方来,不亦乐乎(Yǒupéng Zì Yuǎnfāng Lái, Bù Yì Lè Hū)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">Now, this string of characters is definitely not the norm. It has more than four characters, but it is still considered an idiomatic expression just that it is a quote from Confucius. This can be a little tough to memorise, so knowing its context and meaning might help a little. Essentially, this is the more complex version of “好久不见” which means “long time no see” in English. This is especially suitable for context when you reunite with your old friends and you would like to express more happiness and positive vibes.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">17. 一鸣惊人 (Yī Míng Jīng Rén)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiom means to wonder and amaze the world with a brilliant act. It can be used positively to show that the character has surprised people with his success or carry out astounding acts such as displaying one’s dancing or singing talents.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">18. 多多益善 (Duo Duo Yi Shan)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiom means the more the better. It can be used in situations when you would like to depict the greater the help, the better the situation. For example, it can be used in compositions where you are describing charity work or to garner support and cooperation, basically a call to action since the more the merrier.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">19. 学富五车 (Xue Fu Wu Che)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">In literal translation from <span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-weight: 700;">Chinese to English</span>, this idiom means that the person possesses more knowledge than the knowledge combined in 5 books, therefore he or she is steeped in knowledge. It can be used to describe someone noble, or in a high position such as the school’s principal or a famous person in history.</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; clear: both; color: #212b35; font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 32px; line-height: 1.1; margin: 35px 0px; text-transform: capitalize;"><span style="box-sizing: inherit; font-family: Roboto, "Libre Franklin", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;">20. 挑拨离间(Tiǎobō Líjiàn)</span></h3><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">This idiom means to stir trouble or to drive a wedge between people. It is usually used to describe a third party who spread rumors or did something to cause trouble and sow dissension between two people who have established a good relationship.</p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: inherit; color: #404040; font-family: "Libre Franklin", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; margin: 30px 0px;">Learning idioms is by no means an easy task. However, it can be fun and interesting through storytelling and constant revision of the phrases! It is definitely the number one tip to impress your examiners and display your proficiency in Chinese.</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-24765463498343259712023-04-25T09:54:00.000+02:002023-04-25T09:54:45.595+02:00田家英; January 4, 1922 – May 23, 1966<p><br /></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhrMhqYCUzJeVyuznrm0r3Gh4RJpxV-3RVGzQP32e8u8NBfJZ4sJ7Y9Q0sj0Dtye2C2XBHH6ZCTNfn7Jt1J-jPzwqFbtwfnODufXRbk4A9L8oko1Y39GoXG1R-76nDzjKi95plmVfKCH7yMkmwEeCfH8ymIMkz5T8ONqUHYlrRSXv6hzlt7Kg6yXiA8XQ" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="300" data-original-width="211" height="510" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhrMhqYCUzJeVyuznrm0r3Gh4RJpxV-3RVGzQP32e8u8NBfJZ4sJ7Y9Q0sj0Dtye2C2XBHH6ZCTNfn7Jt1J-jPzwqFbtwfnODufXRbk4A9L8oko1Y39GoXG1R-76nDzjKi95plmVfKCH7yMkmwEeCfH8ymIMkz5T8ONqUHYlrRSXv6hzlt7Kg6yXiA8XQ=w359-h510" width="359" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">In the early 1960s, Mao sent Tian to organize an investigation team to investigate in Hunan to understand the situation and problems in implementing the "Regulations on the Work of Rural People's Communes ". Tian's report questioned the efficacy and logic behind the </span>Great Leap Forward<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">.</span></p><p>秘书田家英为何吊死在毛泽东藏书室?触犯最大忌讳</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-63498555363405173022023-04-24T16:14:00.004+02:002023-04-24T16:14:58.669+02:00Red-Color News Soldier cartea zilei<p> <span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 31.15px; font-weight: 700; text-align: center;">李振盛 - </span><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;">红色新闻兵 2000</span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjQxYFAxOmQw-1H3GCVrITf6fGK_G7FbDIjPbmDI5Mv7Kah5XiS0TuUCIV8Rimahl08IyIs4o4XZ8TakKPhoVnxY9o42n67v610tro2Dz51yV2Awv4YN34k1fDD-YO1rcTjMxNyN_eYBhnsITc1Xa8dgvl6BVqk850OfQ-gatrZ_uR0p_vlWBU3zUtfZg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="2560" data-original-width="1875" height="484" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjQxYFAxOmQw-1H3GCVrITf6fGK_G7FbDIjPbmDI5Mv7Kah5XiS0TuUCIV8Rimahl08IyIs4o4XZ8TakKPhoVnxY9o42n67v610tro2Dz51yV2Awv4YN34k1fDD-YO1rcTjMxNyN_eYBhnsITc1Xa8dgvl6BVqk850OfQ-gatrZ_uR0p_vlWBU3zUtfZg=w355-h484" width="355" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><br /></span></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-2946479886319294912023-04-24T15:59:00.001+02:002023-04-24T15:59:29.816+02:00 凌遲(丛刟 凌遲)<p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">千刀萬剮</span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjVsdT9UPEKCqknYLFw9N2HoQz9T6ppY8AwWX2LGQDP4n7Z4wNxbu3MfOOGYqo-90wze35nKVta52beapJ-e88-Dd7EfxoFuv70gJZMfwVTwAySPf2RwHMpvgtoDOPgXLFjW47sPgz6calB1VUsoDa-E-wdyY3gycKq52Pe9DIg4-BVYz-V9egbebbyXg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="483" data-original-width="700" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjVsdT9UPEKCqknYLFw9N2HoQz9T6ppY8AwWX2LGQDP4n7Z4wNxbu3MfOOGYqo-90wze35nKVta52beapJ-e88-Dd7EfxoFuv70gJZMfwVTwAySPf2RwHMpvgtoDOPgXLFjW47sPgz6calB1VUsoDa-E-wdyY3gycKq52Pe9DIg4-BVYz-V9egbebbyXg=w478-h330" width="478" /></a></div><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi72wtHs-MOtkUtqHWVh9qL-ZdBoaQ31ArGIEAdHES-rihF04MJx2SRhKuFyeCjATZ7hrfTJUl6wTM0FaGywOjlp09ew_5P2LT3aArJ1GwqnTm4a9Tg5WeiSM6OI5wUErq8DWGC9Rze1EnBQQGefw4QuqKaksxfbzq3KxjRfOD6Ll2oFjy3qpU3XezRqA" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="777" data-original-width="800" height="459" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi72wtHs-MOtkUtqHWVh9qL-ZdBoaQ31ArGIEAdHES-rihF04MJx2SRhKuFyeCjATZ7hrfTJUl6wTM0FaGywOjlp09ew_5P2LT3aArJ1GwqnTm4a9Tg5WeiSM6OI5wUErq8DWGC9Rze1EnBQQGefw4QuqKaksxfbzq3KxjRfOD6Ll2oFjy3qpU3XezRqA=w472-h459" width="472" /></a></div><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiEHmJ66s6WPWX0Ww-2Ilwfnm_CnC1bSmWtt8x5IzbLoZBC2z2xjeEQYQHVGrA-_hEjE3Pdmd3V08By5NVgPejXTqS6Dlcd0sa8S0QqZipUsjmeb2oj8IApk5Z1X90VuAEgQs8bt0JP8AkL8M2c_3WiiPDxrJ1hyRKrhLA5ezHLoBNfnyY2Sdpn3USAjA" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="648" data-original-width="440" height="508" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiEHmJ66s6WPWX0Ww-2Ilwfnm_CnC1bSmWtt8x5IzbLoZBC2z2xjeEQYQHVGrA-_hEjE3Pdmd3V08By5NVgPejXTqS6Dlcd0sa8S0QqZipUsjmeb2oj8IApk5Z1X90VuAEgQs8bt0JP8AkL8M2c_3WiiPDxrJ1hyRKrhLA5ezHLoBNfnyY2Sdpn3USAjA=w345-h508" width="345" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><br /><br /><p></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-82795968755271573792023-04-15T19:36:00.000+02:002023-04-15T19:36:28.771+02:00Historical Chinese Communsit Terminology (Great Leap Forward)<p> <span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">包产到户 - </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">household contract system</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">单干风 - </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">winds of individual farming</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">黑暗风 - </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">winds of darkness </span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">中心小组 - </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">central structure</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">包产责任制 - </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">responsibility system for contracting work and output</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">责任田 - f</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">arming responsibility system</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"><br /></span></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-10239062406868760392023-04-15T19:25:00.000+02:002023-04-15T19:25:08.708+02:00鄧子恢 17 August 1896 – 10 December 1972<p> 鄧子恢 17 August 1896 – 10 December 1972</p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgfZpaWnaNNGH6lTKPODNJSg_J1-OXK0rSe6wvaArAiusWOnesjdc-3JbOi8N6w0U8VCAoYIDcKlCKOJM4kQmGWAkkXzJjocgH0TGJmsG6rZPYFcdPgCPUMOjBL4zj2DXjHiIVqKxdBwUKL-rQYKfNQKIMXVK55OsmnVCwPxBdXYCekxiZEYFU5WF0i4A" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="620" data-original-width="420" height="476" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgfZpaWnaNNGH6lTKPODNJSg_J1-OXK0rSe6wvaArAiusWOnesjdc-3JbOi8N6w0U8VCAoYIDcKlCKOJM4kQmGWAkkXzJjocgH0TGJmsG6rZPYFcdPgCPUMOjBL4zj2DXjHiIVqKxdBwUKL-rQYKfNQKIMXVK55OsmnVCwPxBdXYCekxiZEYFU5WF0i4A=w323-h476" width="323" /></a></div><br /><br /><p></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">Deng became a strong defender of peasant property rights, he started opposing the radical policies of forced agricultural collectivization pursued by Mao, especially after the </span>Great Leap Forward</p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">He relied on extensive investigations into the rural economy to support legal protection of peasant property rights while advocating against policies involving extreme </span>egalitarianism<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">, by opposing policies such as excessive government grain requisitions, state monopoly of agricultural pricing and the frequent and rapid transfer of property ownership.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"> Deng's proposals inaugurated major agricultural reforms, such as the 'household contract system' (包产到户</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">). </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">In this system, Deng found an efficient means of resolving the recurrent difficulties that were being faced in the management of collective work.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">Deng was persecuted by </span>Lin Biao<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"> and </span>Jiang Qing<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"> and purged from all positions during the </span>Cultural Revolution<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"> (1966–1976).</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;"> Beset with illness and bereft of official protection, Deng died from an accident on 10 December 1972 in </span>Beijing<span style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 24.5px;">.</span></p><p><br /></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-65774001462242451902023-03-18T17:25:00.000+01:002023-03-18T17:25:43.777+01:00安土重遷<p> 安土重<b>遷</b></p><p>兔死狗烹</p><p>一抔黃土</p><p>蒸蒸日上</p><p>人間蒸<b>發</b></p><p>真<b>槍實彈</b></p><p>放<b>聲</b>大哭</p><p><br /></p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1316466543273546447.post-26104627096444492922023-03-14T17:49:00.000+01:002023-03-14T17:49:41.437+01:00乃 (迺 廼)<p> 1. a fi</p><p>此乃中国特产。</p><p>產</p><p>失敗乃成功之母。</p><p>2. asadar</p><p>因山勢高峻,乃在山腰休息片時。</p><p>o clipa</p><p>3. doar atunci</p><p>今乃知之。</p><p>4. al dumneavoastra</p><p>乃父</p>Mirceahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02930370362396638529noreply@blogger.com0