Vocabulary in Chinese influenced by multiple layers of contact

Here is a comprehensive table showing that core lexical, technical, ritual, and political vocabulary in Chinese was influenced by multiple layers of contact: Buddhist (Sanskrit/Pali), Silk Road (Central Asian/Iranian), southern (Austroasiatic/Tai/Hmong-Mien), Mongolic, and Manchu 1. Buddhist Lexicon (Sanskrit / Pali) | 佛 Fó | Buddha | Sanskrit | Early adoption of foreign religious terminology, challenging purely Han religious lexical development. | | 菩薩 púsà | Bodhisattva | Sanskrit | Complex phonological adaptation suggests deep integration of foreign spiritual terms. | | 涅槃 nièpán | Nirvāṇa | Sanskrit | Suggests abstract philosophical concepts borrowed early from India. | | 羅漢 luóhàn | Arhat | Sanskrit/Prakrit | Non-Han lexicon in canonical texts; challenges indigenous origin narrative. | | 菩提 pútí | Bodhi | Sanskrit | Fundamental Buddhist term, illustrating Indian influence. | | 塔 tǎ | Stūpa | Sanskrit | Physical and religious vocabulary shows Central Asian transmission. | | 禪 chán | Dhyāna | Sanskrit/Pali | Meditation vocabulary imported, redefining Chinese spiritual lexicon. | | 僧伽 sēngqié | Saṅgha | Sanskrit | Institutional vocabulary foreign in origin. | | 華嚴 huáyán | Avataṃsaka | Sanskrit | Semantic translation combined with phonetic adaptation, complex borrowing. | | 曼荼羅 màntuóluó | Maṇḍala | Sanskrit | Ritual and technical term fully absorbed into Chinese phonology. | 2. Silk Road / Central Asian Vocabulary | 獅 shī | šēr | Persian | Suggests early Western Eurasian contact; challenges self-contained Chinese origin. | | 葡萄 pútáo | bōtō | Persian | Agricultural lexicon borrowed; undermines purely indigenous narrative. | | 胡蘿蔔 húluóbo | karot | Persian via Turkic | Steppe influence on food vocabulary. | | 胡椒 hújiāo | pippalī | Sanskrit | Early spice import; “Hu-” prefix highlights foreignness. | | 胡琴 húqín | Iranian/Turkic | Musical instrument | Steppe and Central Asian cultural influence. | | 石榴 shíliu | anar/nar | Persian | Imported fruit lexicon; challenges self-sufficiency idea. | | 茶 chá | Proto-Tibeto-Burman / Austroasiatic | Southern languages | Agricultural product with southern origins; complicates Han-centered narrative. | | 硝 xiāo | sal | Iranian | Technical term for saltpeter; shows knowledge transfer. | | 琵琶 pípá | pipa | Persian/Indian | Musical instrument; shows cross-cultural borrowing. | | 錢 qián | dinar/drachma | Greek/Persian | Monetary concept; imported via trade. | 3. Southern / Austroasiatic, Tai, Hmong-Mien | 米 mǐ | mər | Austroasiatic | Staple crop; core vocabulary from non-Han southern languages. | | 象 xiàng | cɔŋ | Austroasiatic | Core fauna lexicon; challenges indigenous origin. | | 牛 niú | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | Tibeto-Burman | Basic domestic animal word, non-Han origin. | | 竹 zhú | Austroasiatic / Tai | Southern languages | Agriculture lexicon, non-Han influence. | | 甘蔗 gānzhè | ʔkacəʔ | Austroasiatic | Cultivated crop, southern borrowings. | | 芋 yù | ʔŋawʔ | Austroasiatic | Root vegetable; basic food vocabulary borrowed. | | 柚 yòu | Tai | Tai-Kadai | Southern fruit, showing early contact. | | 猴 hóu | Tai | Tai-Kadai | Fauna lexicon, southern influence. | | 柿 shì | Austroasiatic | Southern China | Food vocabulary, non-Han origin. | | 琉璃 liúlí | Indic via Austroasiatic | Glass / glaze | Technical / craft term showing maritime trade influence. | 4. Mongolic / Steppe Influence | 可汗 kèhán | khān | Mongolic/Turkic | Borrowed title for rulers; challenges “purely Chinese” political lexicon. | | 哈達 hādá | khadag | Mongolic/Tibetan | Ceremonial object; foreign ritual vocabulary integrated. | | 團禮 tuánlǐ | töröl | Mongolic | Social / ritual vocabulary; steppe import. | | 斡脫 wòtuō | orto | Mongolic | Administrative term; non-Han governance vocabulary. | | 札撒 zhásà | jasagh | Mongolic | Legal/administrative term; highlights Mongol rule integration. | | 台吉 táijí | taiji | Mongolic | Aristocratic title; foreign political vocabulary. | | 班禪 bānchán | Mongolic/Tibetan | Religious title | Non-Han religious lexicon in Chinese. | | 喇嘛 lǎma | Tibetan via Mongol | Monk | Religious vocabulary of foreign origin. | | 蘇魯克 sūlǔkè | Mongolic | Hunt/expedition | Steppe cultural term in Chinese. | | 蘇打 sūdá | Mongolic via Turkic | Soda/alkali | Material vocabulary; technical borrowing. | 5. Manchu / Qing Administration Influence | 班禪 bānchán | Manchu/Tibetan | Religious title | Retained in Qing; non-Han institutional vocabulary. | | 藩部 fānbù | Manchu fambure | Administrative territory | Bureaucratic term imported; foreign origin. | | 護衛 hùwèi | Manchu hūwei | Military guard | Foreign military-administrative lexicon. | | 鑲黃旗 xiāng huáng qí | Manchu šanggiyan gūsa | Banner system | Political-administrative borrowing. | | 額駙 éfù | Manchu efu | Imperial son-in-law | Court vocabulary from Manchu. | | 套馬 tàomǎ | Manchu toma | Horse-catching term | Steppe culture integrated into Chinese lexicon. | | 烏拉 Wūlā | Manchu ula | River/place names | Geographic vocabulary of non-Han origin. | | 哈爾濱 Hā’ěrbīn | Manchu halbin | Place name | Toponymic borrowing. | | 蘇魯克 sūlǔkè | Manchu | Hunt/expedition | Steppe cultural term in Qing China. | | 托克托 tuōkètuō | Manchu | Personal name/title | Reflects Manchu administrative lexicon. |